1. Civil Engineering Materials CE-115 by Dr. S. Muhammad Jamil School of Civil and Environment Engineering National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad

2. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM2 Chapter 9 STONES

3. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM3 Building Stones

4. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM4 Building Stones Stones used in most historical places –Pyramids of Egypt –Taj Mahal of Agra, India –Great wall of China –Greek and Roman structures –Quaid’s Mausoleum in Karachi –Shahi mosque in Lahore –Forts at Rohtas, Lahore –Grand Trunk Road –Lloyd’s Barrage at Sukkur

5. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM5 Building Stones Stone as building material lost its importance due to –Advent of cement and steel – less bulky, stronger and more durable –Structural strength can not be rationally analyzed –Transportation difficulties –Dressing problems

6. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM6 Building Stone Stone: A construction material derived from rocks in the earth’s crust and mixture of two or more minerals. Mineral is a substance which is formed by the natural inorganic process and possesses a definite chemical composition and molecular structure.

7. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM7 Civil Engineering Uses Construction of residential and public buildings Construction of dams, weirs, harbors, bridge abutments, etc Face work of structures for appearance and ornamental value Road metal and railway ballast Aggregate for concrete Stone dust as substitute for sand Thin slabs for roofing, flooring and pavements Limestone for manufacture of lime, cement, etc

8. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM8 Classification of Rocks

9. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM9 Classification of Rocks Rocks Geological Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic Physical Stratified Un-Stratified Foliated Chemical Argillaceous Siliceous Calcareous Practical Granite, Basalts Marble Limestone, Sandstone, Slate

10. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM10 Classification of Rocks Geological classification –Igneous rocks (primary, un-stratified, eruptive) – cooled down molten volcanic lava (magma). Basalts and granites. –Sedimentary rocks (aqueous, stratified) – gradually deposited disintegrated rocks. Sand stones and lime stones –Metamorphic rocks – transformed due to great heat and pressure. Granite to gneiss, lime stone to marble, shale to slate

11. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM11 Classification of Rocks Physical classification –Stratified rocks – separable distinct layers. Cleavage plane of split visible. Slate, sandstone, lime stone –Un-stratified rocks – no sign of strata, cannot be easily split into slabs. Granite, basalt, trap –Foliated rocks – having tendency to split up only in a definite direction

12. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM12 Classification of Rocks Chemical Classification –Siliceous rocks – containing silica SiO 2 (sand) and silicates. Granite, basalt, trap, quartzite, gneiss, syenite, etc –Argillaceous rocks – containing clay or alumina Al 2 O 3. Slate, laterite, etc –Calcareous rocks – containing calcium carbonate or lime. Limestone, marble, dolomite, etc

13. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM13 Classification of Rocks Practical Classification –Granites –Basalts –Marbles –Sandstones –Slates –Etc, etc

14. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM14 TYPES OF ROCKS USED IN STONE MASONRY Stone Masonry: Building stones obtained by quarrying from the rocky strata of earth and reducing it to the required shapes and sizes for construction Types of rock: (i) Igneous - Formed as a result of cooling of the molten rock to solid state - It is nonporous, hard, strong and durable - Granite: Consists mainly of quartz, feldspar, mica, and other colored minerals; colors include black, gray, red, pink, brown, buff, and green - Serpentine: Main ingredient is serpentine; color ranges from olive green to greenish black, is fine grained and dense - Basalt: Color ranges from gray to black; used mainly for paving stones and retaining walls - (ii) Sedimentary : Sediments deposited by the action of water or wind gets consolidated to a rock - Sandstone: Sedimentary rock composed of sand sized grains made of silica, iron oxide and clay - Colors include gray, brown, light brown, buff, russet, red, copper, and purple - Shale: Derived from clays and silts; weak along planes and is in thin laminations - High in limestone and color varies from black to red, yellow, and blue

15. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM15 TYPES OF ROCKS USED IN STONE MASONRY Stone Masonry: Building stones obtained by quarrying from the rocky strata of earth and reducing it to the required shapes and sizes for construction Types of rock: (i) Igneous - Formed as a result of cooling of the molten rock to solid state - It is nonporous, hard, strong and durable - Granite: Consists mainly of quartz, feldspar, mica, and other colored minerals; colors include black, gray, red, pink, brown, buff, and green - Serpentine: Main ingredient is serpentine; color ranges from olive green to greenish black, is fine grained and dense - Basalt: Color ranges from gray to black; used mainly for paving stones and retaining walls - (ii) Sedimentary : Sediments deposited by the action of water or wind gets consolidated to a rock - Sandstone: Sedimentary rock composed of sand sized grains made of silica, iron oxide and clay - Colors include gray, brown, light brown, buff, russet, red, copper, and purple - Shale: Derived from clays and silts; weak along planes and is in thin laminations - High in limestone and color varies from black to red, yellow, and blue

16. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM16  - Quartzite: It is a variety of and stone composed of mainly granular quartz cemented by silica, color varies from brown, buff, tan, ivory, red through gray - Schist: Made of silica with smaller amounts of iron oxide and magnesium oxide - Color varies from blue, green, brown, gold, white, gray, and red - Slate: Consists mainly of clays and shales - Major ingredients are silicon dioxide, iron oxide, potassium oxide, magnesium oxide, and sometimes titanium, calcium and sulfur - Slate found in parallel layers, which enables it to be cut into thin sheets TYPES OF ROCKS USED IN STONE MASONRY (Cont’d)

17. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM17 Granite Non-porous, hard, strong, durable Color Range Surface Textures Sources Primary Uses

18. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM18 Polished Surface Rough Texture

19. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM19 Stone Mountain, Atlanta, USA

20. Igneous Rocks

21. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM21 Red Granite

22. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM22 Vesicular Basalt

23. Sedimentary Rocks

24. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM24 Limestone & Sandstone Porous, relatively weak Color Range Surface Textures Sources Primary Uses

25. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM25 Limestone with Granite

26. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM26 Old Red Sandstone

27. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM27 Red Devonian Sandstone

28. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM28 Basalt and Sandstone

29. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM29 Limestone and Slate

30. Metamorphic Rocks

31. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM31 Metamorphic Rock Marble Slate

32. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM32 Marble - Exterior Application

33. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM33 Slate Flooring

34. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM34 Green Slate

35. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM35 Metamorphic Rocks

36. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM36 Metamorphic Rocks

37. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM37 Gneiss

38. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM38 Granitic Gneisses

39. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM39 Granitic Gneisses

40. Miscellaneous Sedimentary Material

41. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM41 Glacially Transported Potpourri

42. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM42 Glacially Transported Potpourri

43. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM43 Chert Nodules (Flints)

44. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM44 Chert Nodules (Flints)

45. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM45 Chert Nodules

46. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM46 Cenzoic Coral

47. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM47 Stone Masonry

48. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM48 Uses of Stones and Their Selection UseStone Const of bldgs exposed toGranite, sand stone high wind blowing particles For gen bldg works Sand stone For hvy engg work (docks,br) Granite, gneiss Bldg exposed to fireCompact sandstone Industrial bldgGranite and Compact sandstone Road metal and rly ballastGranite & basalt Electrical switch boardSlabs of marble and slate Manufacture of limeLimestone As flux in manufacturing of ironLimestone

49. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM49 Characteristics of Good Building Stones Appearance & color – uniform color, lighter shades preferred, free from clay holes, bands or spots Structure – Not dull in appearance, crystalline homogenous close grained is good, stratification should not be visible, fine grained for carving Weight – heavier are compact, less porous, good for hydraulic structures Strength – generally compressive strength needed, igneous rock stones are stronger Hardness– resistance to abrasion, friction and wear. Hardness scale 1 to 10 Toughness – Withstand impact, vibrations, moving loads Dressing – uniform texture and softness for fine surface finish

50. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM50 Characteristics of Good Building Stones Porosity and Absorption – exposed surface absorbs rain water forming acids causing crumbling action. Cyclic freezing and thawing of pore water Seasoning – hardening and weathering affect due to evaporation of quarry sap and formation of crystalline film. 6 to 12 months for proper seasoning Weathering – resistance to action of weather Resistance to fire – free from calcium carbonate or oxides of iron Durability – compact, homogenous and less absorptive is more durable Cost – quarrying, transportation, dressing and installation

51. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM51 Moh’s Hardness Scale 1Talc, scratched easily by thumb nail 2Gypsum, scratched by thumb nail 3Calcite, scratched not by thumb nail but by knife 4Fluorite, cut by knife with difficulty 5Apatite, cut by knife with difficulty more than 4 6Orthoclase, cut by knife with great difficulty 7Quartz, not scratched by steel, scratches glass 8Topaz 9Sapphire 10Diamond

52. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM52 Common Building Stones GRANITE Composition –Quartz, feldspar and mica. Characteristics –Hard, strong and durable unstartified stone. –It is crystalline and fine to coarse grained. –G=2.63 - 2.75 and absorption <1 % –Significantly strong and durable –Compressive strength 1000-2500 Kg/cm 2 –The hardest and most durable granite contains a greater proportion of quartz and smaller proportion of feldspar and mica. –Fine granite weathers better than does granite of coarse grain. –Least fire resistant as it cracks under strong fire. –Feldspar renders the stone light in colour. Uses –Construction of sea wall, light houses, bridge piers –Suitable for ornamental columns, plinth etc. –Large pieces are used as building blocks, the smaller as road metals or railway ballast and chippings for manufacture of concrete or artificial stone

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55. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM55 Common Building Stones BASALT Composition – Feldspar, augite, alumina, silica etc. Characteristics –Hard, compact and durable unstartified stone. –Heavier than granite. –G=2.6 - 3.0 and absorption <1 % –Compressive strength 1500-3000 Kg/cm 2 –Cannot be generally obtained in large blocks. –It has grey, dark, green, blue, black, red and yellow colours. Uses –Construction of roads. –Building construction. –Used as aggregate in concrete. –Red and yellow varieties used in ornamental work.

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57. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM57 Common Building Stones LIMESTONE Composition – Sedimentary calcareous, CaCO 3, MgCO 3 alumina, silica etc. Characteristics –It is durable and can be sawn, plane, lathed and carved easily, effectively and economically. –G=2.6 –Compressive strength 300 to 2500 Kg/cm 2 –Available in brown, yellow and dark grey colours. – Uses –Used as road metal when granite and basalt not available. –Building construction (stone masonry). –Used as in large quantities in blast furnaces, bleaching and tanning.

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59. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM59 Common Building Stones SANDSTONE Composition – Sedimentary siliceous variety, contains sand or quartz cemented by CaCO 3, mica, aluminum, oxides of iron or by mixture of these materials etc. Characteristics –Strong and durable fine grained stone. –Its structure shows sandy grains. –G=2.25 –Compressive strength 35 to 40 MN/m 2. –It splits easily into large slabs along the bedding. –Available in brown, white, grey, pink colours. –Durability is a function of the cementing agent. Uses –The fine grained and compact variety is suitable for ashlar work, mouldings, carving etc. – The rough and coarse Used as in large grained stone is employed for rubble work.

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61. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM61 Common Building Stones MARBLE Composition – Metamorphic rock of calcareous variety. It is changed from limestone. It is crystalline hard compact stone having CaCO 3, as the main constituent. Characteristics –It is hard (Mohs scale 3-4) and takes a fine polish. –It can be easily worked. –G=2.72 –Absorption < 1 % –Low porosity and resistant to weathering. –Compressive strength 1800 to 2100 kg/cm 2. – Available in yellow, white, grey, green, red, blue and black colour. (Buner, Malakand, Nowshera, Sawabi, Khyber, Mohmend Agency, Chitral, Swat), Uses –It is used for carving and decoration work. – It is also used for steps, wall linings, electrical switch boards, table slabs and columns.

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63. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM63 Common Building Stones SLATE Composition – It is a metamorphic rock (Argillaceous variety). It is composed of alumina mixed with sand or carbonate of lime. Characteristics –A good slate is hard, tough and durable fine grained stone. –It can be split into thin sheets. –G=2.8 –Compressive strength 60 to 70 MN/m 2. –It is non-absorbent. –When struck with a light hammer, it produces sharp metallic rings. Uses –The fine grained and compact variety is suitable for ashlar work, mouldings, carving etc. – The rough and coarse Used as in large grained stone is employed for rubble work.

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65. Evaluation of Stones

66. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM66 Tests of Stones Weathering test of natural building stones Durability test of natural building stones Water absorption and porosity test Test for determination of true specific gravity Compressive strength test

67. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM67 Selection of Sample for Tests A truly representative sample of type and grade of stone should be selected. Sample may be selected from quarried stone or natural rock. Separate samples weighing at least 25 kg each shall be collected from differing strata. Test pieces for toughness or compressive strength test shall be at least 10.0 x 12.5 x 7.5 cm in size. Test pieces shall be free from seams or fractures. In case of field stones and boulders separate samples shall be selected of all classes of stones based on visual inspection.

68. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM68 Weathering Test Specimen –5 cm diameter, 5 cm high cylinders –5 cm cubes –Smooth finished, edges rounded to 0.3 cm Three test specimens oven dried at 105 ± 5°C for 24 hrs and cooled in desiccators down to room temp 20 to 30°C W 1 weight of cooled and dried test piece, weighed to nearest 0.01 gm Specimens submerged in water for 24 hrs at room temp W 2 immersed and freely suspended sample weight Remove the specimen from water, wipe off surface water W 3 weight after removal from water

69. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM69 Weathering Test Place the specimen in a glass dish in solution of 25 ml of water and 2 gm of powdered gypsum Dishes with specimen are kept in oven at 105 ± 5°C for 5 hrs till gypsum powder becomes dry Specimen cooled down to room temp 25 ± 5°C Heating and cooling cycle is repeated 30 times Specimen removed and cleaned with wire brush Specimen kept immersed in water for 24 hrs W 4 weight of sample in air after 30 cycles W 5 weight of sample freely suspended, immersed in water

70. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM70 Weathering Test A 1 : Original absorption of specimen on 24 hr immersion in water A 2 : Final absorption after 30 cycles V 1 : Original volume after 24 hrs immersion in water V 2 : final volume after 30 cycles d: density of water at observation temperature

71. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM71 Durability Test Specimen –5 cm diameter, 5 cm high cylinders or 5 cm cubes –Smooth finished, edges rounded to 0.3 cm At least three test samples dried for 24 hrs and weighed as W 1 Samples suspended in solution of 14% sodium sulphate decahydrate (density 1.055 kg/m 3 ) for 18 hrs at room temperature Samples air dried for 30 minutes Samples now oven dried for 24 hrs at 105 ± 5°C

72. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM72 Durability Test Samples cooled down to room temperature to complete one cycle Weight W 2 at the end of every 5 th cycle noted and 30 cycles completed Durability expressed as

73. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM73 Water Absorption and Porosity Test Sample preparation –Sufficient material is crushed –Material passing 20 mm sieve is retained –Material washed to remove dust About 1 kg material is immersed and soaked in distilled water at room temperature for 24 hrs Entrapped air is removed by vigorous rotational motion. Sample taken out of water and spread on cloth, gently surface dried with cloth and exposed to atmosphere in shade for ten minutes.

74. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM74 Water Absorption and Porosity Test On drying of surface, sample weight W 1 recorded Distilled water added to sample in a graduated glass cylinder in portions of 100 ml till level of water reaches 1000 ml mark Entrapped air is removed after each addition of water Total quantity of added water is recorded as W 2 Sample taken out of cylinder and dried in oven at 100°C to 110°C for 24 hrs. W 3 recorded when sample is cooled down.

75. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM75 Water Absorption and Porosity Test W 1 : Initial weight of dried sample W 2 : Weight of water consumed in saturation W 3 : Final weight of sample after drying for 24 hrs

76. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM76 True Specific Gravity Test Crush 0.5 kg of thoroughly washed specimen to 3 mm size, mix and make samples of 50 gm each Sample ground in an agate mortar to pass 150 microns sieve Sample is dried at 100°C, cooled in desiccator Specific gravity bottle is cleaned, washed, dried, cooled and weighed (W 1 ) About 15 gms sample placed in specific gravity bottle closed with stopper and whole weighed as W 2 Three fourths of specific gravity bottle filled with distilled water

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78. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM78 True Specific Gravity Test Bottle boiled for 10 minutes while removing entrapped air Bottle cooled to room temperature, filled with water, stoppered and weighed as W 3 Bottle emptied, washed, filled with only distilled water, stoppered and weighed at room temperature as W 4

79. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM79 Test for Compressive Strength Specimen Preparation –Cube size 5 cm, cylinder diameter 5 cm, height 5 cm –Load bearing surfaces finished as nearly true, parallel and perpendicular planes as possible –Loaded face dimensions measured to nearest 0.2 mm –Specimens kept immersed in water at 20 to 30°C for 24 hrs for saturated condition testing –Specimens oven dried at 105 ± 5°C for 24 hrs and cooled down to room temp for dry testing Testing load gradually increased @ 140 kg/cm 2 per minute until break down Max load applied divided by area of bearing surface is taken as the compressive strength of specimen

80. Quarrying of Stones

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82. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM82 Quarrying and Dressing Quarrying: An art of extracting from the rock beds stones of different varieties used for general building work and broken stones for roads and concrete work, etc Quarry: The place from where stone is obtained by digging or blasting etc

83. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM83 Quarrying Methods Digging or Excavating Method. Stones occurring as detached nodules may be dug using manual methods like crowbars etc Heating Method. Rock surface is heated for several hours resulting into unequal expansion and crushing of rock into small pieces Wedging Method. Layered rock is split at cleavage or seam using steel wedges and pins Blasting Method. Hard and compact rock is blasted out using explosives techniques comprising boring, charging, tamping and firing

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85. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM85 Quarrying & Its location The required building stone should be available in sufficient quantities at or near the surface of the ground. Sufficient labour at cheap rate locally available. Ample means of communication should be available. Power should be cheaply available. Sufficient quantities of clean water should be available. Should have good drainage. Site for damping of refuge should be easily accessible. Should have no permanent structure in the vicinity.

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87. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM87 Quarrying Tools

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90. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM90 Blasting Procedure Boring. Drilling of holes in rock using jumper, manual drilling or machine drilling using pneumatic or mechanical power Charging. Placing of required quantity of explosive charge in the hole at desired location. Quantity depends upon explosive strength, blasting method, number of holes, type and mass of rock –Gunpowder or Dynamite explosive (gms) = Square of length of line of least resistance (m) / 0.008 Tamping. Placing of priming charge, detonation cable (cordite), and sealing off the escape of gases Firing. detonation mechanism (electrical or non-electrical detonators) or fuse ignition

91. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM91 Blasting Precautions Blasting should not be carried out in late evening or early morning. Blasting should be made public with sufficient time allowed to retire to safe distance 200 m radius danger zone should be marked with red flags First aid should be made available Proper record of number of charges prepared, fired and exploded to account for misfires Explosive should be handled carefully Detonators and explosive should not be stored and kept together Cartridges should be handled with rubber gloves Maximum of 10 bore holes should be exploded at a time and that too successively and not simultaneously

92. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM92 Stone Dressing Pitched faced dressed – 2.5 cm edges dressed and made square Hammer dressed, hammer faced, quarry faced or rustic faced – dressed like a brick with 2.5 cm rough edges for use in masonry Rock faced and chisel drafted – chisel draft of 2.5 cm along edges Rough tooled – edges and corners made perfect square and true Punched dressed – rough tooled improved up to 2 mm Fine tooled – fair smooth surface for ashler masonry

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95. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM95 Dressed Stone Surfaces

96. Stone Care

97. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM97 Deterioration of Stones Rain. –Physical Action. Disintegration, erosion, transportation due to alternate wetting and drying –Chemical Action. Decomposition, oxidation and hydration of minerals due to acids formed with rain water Frost. Pierces the pores, freezes, expands and creates cracks Wind. Abrasion due to wind carried dust Temperature Changes. Expansion and contraction affects on minerals of different coefficients of linear expansion

98. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM98 Deterioration of Stones Vegetable growth. Roots of trees and weeds in cracks and fissures Mutual decay Chemical Agents. Smokes, fumes, acids and acid fumes from atmosphere Lichens. Destroy lime stones. Molluses make series of parallel vertical holes

99. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM99 Avoiding Deterioration Initial selection – use compact, crystalline stones instead of porous material Seasoning – Seasoned stones are less liable to deterioration due to frost and acids Size – it does matter – bigger is more durable than smaller ones Natural bed – placing on natural bed provides greater strength and is detrimental to rain and frost Surface finish – well dressed, smooth finished and polished is more durable Workmanship – all joints filled leaving no cavities in masonry External rendering – pointing or plastering to stop rain penetration Proper maintenance – washing, removing dirt and dust Application of preservatives – eliminate cause of deterioration Cure is better than medicine

100. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM100 Natural Bed of Stones

101. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM101 Preservation of Stones Stones should be kept dry with blow lamp and applied coat of paraffin, linseed oil, light paint, etc Stones should be washed with water and steam to remove dirt and salt In industrial towns stones are preserved by application of solution of baryta, Ba(OH) 2 to form insoluble barium sulphate Preservative treatment only slows down the decay but does not stop it. All have harmful side effects also

102. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM102 Selection of Stones Cost – quarrying and cutting, dressing, transportation charges, etc Fashion & Ornamental value including color, shade, etc specially after prolong usage Durability (usually overlooked and disregarded), resistance to fire and weathering

103. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM103 Selection of Stones Heavy engineering works bridges, piers, abutments, break waters, docks, light houses – granite (biotite, hornblende, tourmaline) Buildings facing the sea – granite, fine grained sandstone Buildings in industrial area – granite, compact sandstone Arches – fine grained sandstone Building face work – marble, close grained sandstone Fire resisting structure – compact sandstone Road metal and aggregate for concrete – granite, basalt, quartzite Railway ballast – coarse grained sandstone, quartzite Electrical switch board – slate, marble

104. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM104 Artificial Stone Definition - Building material made with cement, sand and natural aggregates of crushed stone for use in place of natural stone Properties –Made with white cement, sand and natural aggregates of crushed stone –Molded into most intricate forms –Cast into any size –Reinforced to desired higher strength –Desired coloring may be achieved –Desired finish may be achieved

105. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM105 Artificial Stone Concrete block. Cast in molds for steps, window sills, masonry work, etc Ransom stone. Soda silicate plus cement for decorative flooring Victoria stone. Granite pieces immersed in soda silicate for two months Bituminous stone. Provide noise, wear and dust resistant stone surfaces

106. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM106 Artificial Stone Imperial stone. Crushed granite plus cement, molded, steam cured Artificial marble. Pre-cast or cast-in-situ. Portland gypsum cement and sand. Cast blocks treated with magnesium fluorite, washed, paper wrapped, machine emery ground, polished and finally rubbed with ball of wool moistened with alum water Garlic stone. Iron slag and cement mixture molded into flag stones, surface drains, etc

107. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM107 Any Questions ???

108. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM108 Tests of Stones Hardness test Crushing test Impact test Fire resistance test Attrition test Acid test Water absorption test Smith’s test Crystallization test Microscopic test Freezing and thawing test

109. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM109 Hardness Test Moh’s scale of hardness –1Talc, scratched easily by thumb nail –2Gypsum, scratched by thumb nail –3Calcite, scratched not by thumb nail but by knife –4Fluorite, cut by knife with difficulty –5Apatite, cut by knife with difficulty more than 4 –6Orthoclase, cut by knife with great difficulty –7Quartz, not scratched by steel, scratches glass –8Topaz –9Sapphire –10Diamond

110. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM110 Hardness Test Coefficient of hardness –Sample 25 mm dia cylinder, 25 mm height –Rotated @ 28 rpm in Dorry’s testing machine –Coarse sand sprinkled for 1000 rotations –Coefficient = 20 – (loss in weight in gms)/3

111. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM111 Crushing Test Sample 40 mm x 40 mm x 40 mm cube Saturation in water for 72 hours Axial loading on cube @ 13.7 N/mm² per minute Maximum load at which specimen crushes is the crushing strength per unit area (N/mm²) –Limestone – 50 –Sandstone – 70 –Granite – 70 to 130 –Slate – 70 to 200 –Basalt – 150 to 200 –Gneiss – 200 to 400

112. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM112 Impact Test Specimen 25 mm diameter cylinder, 25 mm height Impact testing machine hammer and anvil 20 N hammer falls axially in vertical direction on specimen Blow height –First blow – 1 cm –Second blow – 2 cm –Third blow – 3 cm –nth blow – n cm nth blow breaking the sample has toughness index value as n

113. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM113 Attrition Test Also know as abrasion test, determines the rate of wear of stones used in road construction Deval’s attrition testing machine Test details –60 mm size pieces of sample stone weighing 50 N placed in two 200 mm and 340 mm cylinders of machine –Cylinders rotated for 5 hours @ 30 rpm –Contents sieved through 1.5 mm sieve, and material retained is weighed –Percentage wear = loss in weight / initial weight x 100

114. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM114 Water Absorption Test A 0.5 N cube of given sample prepared and weighed as W 1 N Immersed in water for 24 hours and weighed as W 2 N Cube suspended freely in water and weighed as W 3 N Cube kept in boiling water for 5 hours and weighed as W 4 N %age absorption by weight = (W 2 – W 1 )/W 1 x 100 %age absorption by volume = (W 2 – W 1 )/(W 2 – W 3 ) x 100 %age porosity by volume = (W 4 – W 1 )/(W 2 – W 3 ) x 100 Saturation Coefficient = water absorption / total porosity = (W 2 – W 1 )/(W 4 – W 1 ) x 100

115. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM115 Miscellaneous Tests Fire Resistance Test –Stone free from calcium carbonate can resist fire –Few drops of dilute sulphuric acid dropped over stone if produces bubbles detects presence of calcium carbonate Acid Test –Stone is kept for one week in 1% strong solution of sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid. High alkaline and lime content stones loose material

116. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM116 Miscellaneous Tests Smith’s Test –Indicates presence of earthly matter –Sample broken into small pieces in put into clean water and shaken vigorously –Dirty color shows presence of earthly matter Crystallization Test –Shows durability or weathering quality –Sample of stone immersed in solution of sodium sulphate and dried in hot air –Wetting and drying done for two hours and difference in weight recorded

117. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM117 Miscellaneous Tests Microscopic Test –Mineral constituents –Texture of stone –Average grain size –Nature of cementing material –Existence of fissures, pores, veins and shakes Freezing and Thawing Test –Sample of stone immersed in water for 24 hours –Sample placed in freezing mixture at -12 °C for 24 hours –Sample thawed in shade at room temperature –Procedure repeated several times and behavior noted

118. 8/19/2015 9:59 PM118 Produced by Blasting or Cutting - Irregular-sized stone is produced by blasting the rock, the larger pieces are cut into smaller units for use as an exterior finish, rest is crushed and sorted into various sizes as aggregates - Most of the dimensional stones used in building construction are produced by cutting large blocks in the quarry - Cut with diamond belt saws (12ft wide, 2 to 5 ft thick, and 50 ft long); rubber air bags inflated in the saw cut to break it away and then the separated rock is lowered onto prepared stone chips cushion - Thereafter it is cut into smaller sizes and transported by front-end loaders to the mill for further processing QUARRYING AND PRODUCING BUILDING STONES