1. The Development of Education in Korea
: Past Achievement and Current Challenges
Chong Jae Lee
Seoul National University
Background paper for the East Asia Study Tour for Senior African Education Policy Makers
Organized by World Bank on June 19-23, 2006

2. Ⅰ. Introduction Purposes
Overview Korean approach to past development and current challenges in education sector
Identify key policy choices that help explain how educational development patterns contribute to the successful economic growth in Korea
Highlight key lessons learned from Korean development over past six decades

3. Ⅱ. Setting the stage: where we started in 1945
Educational attainment level of Korea population
13+ years population: 15 million
Never attendance: 12.3 million (79.8%)
Elementary education and more: 1.9 million (8.3%)
Enrollment Ratio of elementary education(6-12yrs)
1945: 64.0%
1948: 74.8%
Enrollment Ratio of Secondary education: 3.2%

4. Ⅱ. Setting the stage: where we started in 1945
Policy tasks and choices
Develop modern school system
Expand the access to education
Reduce illiteracy (10 million)
Development of school system: Access, Relevance and International standards
Six years compulsory elementary education
Two level of secondary education: Middle and High school
Single Track
Multiple forms of higher education institutions
Dual mode of teacher education
Special schools for adult learners
“ ” Single track system

5. Ⅲ. Challenges and Main Policy Choice
Key Stages
1948~1960 : Reconstruction
1961~1980 : Education for Economic growth
1981~2000 : Search for New Paradigms
2000~Present : Restructuring
Characteristics by Key Stages
Challenges to Education
Major concerns
Policy Choice
Resources and tools

6. How education contributes economic growth?
1960
1970
1980
1990
1997
1998
2000
2004
Population (Millions) 24 32 38 43 46 47 48
GNI per capita
(US$) 80
650
2,324
7,751
10,363
6,843
9,675
12,646
Unemployment rate (%)
11.7
4.4
5.2
2.4
2.6
6.8
4.1
3.4
(2003)
Labor force (Millions) 8 10 14 19 21 22 23
Labor force
Participation rate (%)
30.8%
47.6
59.0
60.0
62.2
60.5
60.7
61.4
Source: Gwang-Jo Kim, VET in South Korea: Policy Response to Changing World, p. 6.

7. Evolution of the Korean Education System, 1948-Present (1)
Focus by Periods
1948~1960
Reconstruction
1961~1980
Ed for Eco. Growth
1981~2000
Search for New Paradigm of Educational Development
2001
~Present
Restructuring
Challenges to Education
Compulsory Education
Secondary Education for All
Supply for Technical manpower
Universalization of Higher Education
Lifelong learning
HRD
Major Concerns
Access to Opportunity
Growth of Quantity, Efficiency and control
Quality
Autonomy
Accountability
Competitiveness in Globalization knowledge-society
Policy
Choice
Universal compulsory education
Expansion and Equalization of secondary education
Decentralized local autonomy of Education
Expansion of Higher Education
Restructuring Higher Education
Support Research productivity
Regional development
HRD, L-L

8. Evolution of the Korean Education System, 1948-Present (2)
Focus by Periods
1948~1960
Reconstruction
1961~1980
Ed for Eco. Growth
1981~2000
Search for New Paradigm of Educational Development
2001
~Present
Restructuring
Policy
Choice
Reconstruction of educational infrastructure
Technical Vocational education & training
Quality Improvement
Quality improvement of Public schools
Coordinated approach to HRD
Resources or
Tools
Using Foreign Assistance
5 Years planning long-term planning
Law of Local education financing fund established
Foreign loans to support TVET
PCER: Presidential Commission for Education Reform
Education Reform (1995)
Educational and Financial Support for Higher Education (BK, Nuri, Post BK)

9. How education contributes economic growth?
Human Resources Development with Rapid and sequential expansion of elementary, secondary and higher education in advanced economic growth and development.
Expansion and upgrading of Technical-Vocational education.
Special support to improve the conditions of compulsory elementary school

10. How education contribute economic growth?
Harbison & Myers's observation: Korean expanded secondary education to the level of per capita GNP $380, when its per capita GDP was $ 107.
Per Capita GDP
Enrollment rate of
Secondary
Education
KOREA
$ 107
$ 380

11. How education contribute economic growth?
Sequential expansion of access to education from Elementary, Secondary and Higher Education in advance corresponded well to the manpower needs for Economic development
Elementary Ed. → Labor Intensive light
Secondary Ed Manufacturing
(1960s)
Vocational-Technical → Capital Intensive
High schools Heavy-Chemical Industry
(1970s → 1980s)
Expansion → Electronics, High-tech
of Higher Education Knowledge Industry
(1980s → Present)

12. How education contribute economic growth?
Expand and upgrade Technical and Vocational Education and Training Infrastructure to develop technical manpower
1960’s : Vocational High school
Jr Technical Colleges
Technical Universities
1970’s : Science Education
Use of External Loans (IDA, IBRD etc)
As part of “5 Years Economic Development Plan” Compulsory Elementary School condition improved
Special budget support from Economic Development Account
Large class size reduced

13. How we expand access to Education?
Development Approach to Korean Education : Major Policies
Six-year Compulsory Education plan ( )
Abolition of Entrance Exam to Middle School (1968)
High School Equalization Policy (1974)
July 30 Educational Reform (1980)

14. How we expand access to Education?
Six-year compulsory education plan( )
Context
In 1945, the enrollment rate of elementary education was below 50%
Policy Measure
Six-year compulsory education plan( ): gradual provision of free compulsory education
Low cost approach
Lowering educational standards (Large class, Double shift classroom)
Relying on private schools to accommodate more students

15. How we expand access to Education?
Abolition of Entrance Exam to Middle School in 1964
Egalitarian approach: Achieving uniform equality
Lowering educational standards: class size from 60 to 70
Gradual extension of free compulsory education to middle school from rural areas in 1984 to all area in 2004
Relying on private schools to accommodate more students.

16. How we expand access to Education?
High School Equalization Policy in 1974
Context
Severe competition for entrance to academic high schools resulted in private tutoring
Policy Measure
To ease the competition and private tutoring to prepare entrance exams to selective academic high schools, high school equalization policy(HEP) formulated in 1974.
Abolished entrance examination to high schools and replaced it with state-wide qualification exam (more than 90% could pass)
Assign those passed the Qualification exam randomly to one of any high school from cluster of high schools.
Private high schools are included in high school cluster.
As the case of middle schools, government had to subsidize private high school

17. How we expand access to Education?
July 30 Educational Reform, 1980
Context
The excessive competition in the college entrance examination brought the added burden on the expenses for private education.
Excessive competition for the entrance exam
Overheated private tutoring
Policy Measure:
Prohibition of private tutoring
Expand the admission quota to college and university.
The abolition of entrance examination administered by universities and introduce national level examination.

18. How we expand access to Education?
Quantitative expansion of Secondary Education
School Enrollment Rate:
Source: KEDI, Statistical Yearbook of Education 2004

19. How we expand access to Education?
Quantitative expansion of Secondary Education
Advancement Rate:
Source: KEDI, Statistical Yearbook of Education 2004
68.0

20. How we expand access to Education?
Quantitative expansion of Secondary Education
Distribution of Educational Attainment of Population over 25 years old(%)

21. Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education & Training
TVET System
Vocational-Technical High Schools
Jr Technical Colleges (2-3 years)
Universities
Open Technical Colleges for Employed
Public Job-training centers under Ministry of Labor
Private Technical training industries (Nurse-aid, etc)

22. Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education & Training
Evolution 1960~1980, Education for Economic Growth Period
Policy priority given to TVET during implementation of Economic development plan since 1962
Expansion of Vocational High Schools: 1962~1980
Insert Table (Korean 60yrs)
Curriculum development (1963)
Specialized Technical High School with Mechanical focus
Increase Investment and use loan programs (ICA, IDA, ADB, World Bank)
Expand the Technical programs in Jr. Tech College and Universities
System Development
National Technical Qualification and Certification system (1974)
Establish KRIVET: Korean Research Institute for Vocational Education and Training
Recognize Corporate training program as degree certificate program

23. Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education & Training
Identity of Technical-Vocational High Schools questioned : 1990’s
Weak Incentive system of semi-skilled job (Pay, promotions, working conditions)
Less opportunities for occupational growth, Life-long learning and HRD
Directions for development of VH, not clear
Students preference higher education to vocational high school

24. Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education & Training
Evaluation Remarks on TVET in Korea
Technical-Vocational High Schools
Remarkable contribution in 1960’s-1970’s
As Korean economy utilizes new technologies, T-V high schools face questioning of identity
Jr. Technical Colleges and Science-Engineering programs of Universities play important roles of HRD in 1980’s-2000
TV High school: vacancy rate(12%), drop-out(5%), Advance to Tertiary(50%)

25. Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education & Training
Evaluation Remarks on TVET in Korea
New Perspectives needed for HRD through Life-Long-Learning(LLL) at Individual and Institutional level
Individual level:
developing growth-capacities
HRD through Life-long learning
Upgrade qualification & Certification
Career-development path
Institutional Level:
Developing Relevance, Quality, Competitiveness, Market control model
Use Public Support in the Voucher Form

26. Evolution of Technical-Vocational Education & Training
Evaluation Remarks on TVET in Korea
New Policy tasks emerged
Upgrade and transform vocational high schools into “Diversified-specialized Elite Vocational Schools”
Strengthening functional relationship among general high schools, vocational high schools and Jr. Technical Colleges
Develop “Private technical institutes” and OJT Centers in corporations as specialized technical institute

27. (1) Trade-off between quantity expansion and quality maintenance
Ⅳ. Development of Factors determining the Quality of Education - Factors
(1) Trade-off between quantity expansion and quality maintenance
Resource Constraints
Unit cost → Low cost approach increase the Quantity
Cost Missing learning(A) > Cost caused with poor quality(B)
Stepwise approach
Quality B A
Quantity

28. Ⅳ. Development of Factors determining the Quality of Education - Factors
(2) Teacher Training
We upgraded Elementary school teacher training program step by step
Normal High School + Temporary training institute
2 Years Teachers College (1962)
4 Years Teachers College (1982)
Some Concerns Affecting the performance of Teachers
Teaching Job is the most attractive job
Union of teachers’ influence on policy matter
Professional development of Teachers: Empowerment, Job Enrichment

29. (3) Development and Effective use of Textbooks
Ⅳ. Development of Factors determining the Quality of Education - Factors
(3) Development and Effective use of Textbooks
During Korean War and Reconstruction Period( ), Textbook printed with UNKRA assistance low quality and free distribution
Even Compulsory education, parents pay textbooks
‘Free of charge’ policy extended from low income areas and group of students to all gradually.

30. E-learning system plays very important role in self-directed learning
Ⅳ. Development of Factors determining the Quality of Education - Factors
(5) Role of ICT
E-learning system plays very important role in self-directed learning
Provide alternative ‘low-cost’ private tutoring to students who cannot attend high quality cramming institute in Seoul
E-learning system video program on demand connected with Education TV/ Internet
On the Job Training/ ‘Credue’ the largest e-learning training company

31. Government Budget vs MOE Budget
Ⅳ. Development of Factors determining the Quality of Education - Factors
Government Budget vs MOE Budget
6.2
49,525
20.8
27,982
134,370
2005
5.4
31,087
20.4
19,172
93,937
2000
4.8
19,215
22.8
12,496
54,845
1995
4.6
8,524
22.3
5,062
22,689
1990
5.5
4,600
19.9
2,492
12,275
1985
5.6
2,732
18.9
1,099
5,804
1980 -
14.4
228
1,587
1975
17.6 78
446
1970
16.2 15 95
1965
15.2 6 42
1960
9.4 2 28
1955
5.7
0.1
0.2
1950
Ratio to GDP
Total public educational expenditures
B/A
MOE budget(B)2)
Government budget(A)1)
(unit: billion won, %)
9.50

32. (6) Financing Education
Ⅳ. Development of Factors determining the Quality of Education - Factors
(6) Financing Education
Household contribution to Education Financing: Tuition and Fees
In 2005, Public expenditure on Education
From Government 27,982 (Billion won)
Household Tuition 21,000 (42.2%)
Total 49,982 Billion
Elementary
14,486
(30.0%)
Middle
8,362
(16.7%)
High School
9,651
(19.3%)
Jr. College
3,306
(6.6%)
University
13,519
(27.0%)
Total
49,982

33. (6) Financing Education
Ⅳ. Development of Factors determining the Quality of Education - Factors
(6) Financing Education
Ratio of Teachers Salaries with 15 years experience in 2000 to per capita GDI
High
Middle
Primary
4.04
4.05
A/B
10,841
GNI(B)
43,800
43,952
Salary(A)
(Unit $ based on PPP)

34. (6) Financing Education
Ⅳ. Development of Factors determining the Quality of Education - Factors
(6) Financing Education
Per Capita Cost of Public Expenditure on Education(2000)
(Unit $ based on PPP)
8,244
10,914
20,358
6,118
Higher Ed
6,094
6,266
8,855
4,069
Secondary Ed
4,317
5,507
6,995
3,155
Elementary Ed
Finland
Japan US
Korea

35. Institutional Aspects
As a graduate of ‘Normal High School’ and elementary school teacher, his commitment and support to:
Expanding compulsory education
Vocational technical education and training
“Special schools and classroom” established in industrial centers for working youth
Extension compulsory education to Middle school (in the context of comparison between South and North Korea, which introduced 11 years compulsory education in 1971)

36. Institutional Aspects
(2) Roles of R&D Institute in Educational Development
Established national R&D Center to develop knowledge base for national development in 1970s
KDI : Korea Development Institute
KIST: Korea Institute of Science and Technology
KEDI: Korean Educational Development Institute
In Education
KEDI: Educational development
KICE: Curriculum and Evaluation
KRIVET: Vocational Education and Training
KERIS: Educational Research and Information services
Major Functions
R&D, Planning, Development Projects, Evaluation

37. Ⅴ. Current Educational Issues
Human Qualities Required in Knowledge Based Society
High Level Cognitive Process
Self-Control, Responsibility, Independency
Creativity
Self-Directed Learning Capability
Voluntary Initiatives → Individuality
Intrinsic values and Social capital development

38. Ⅴ. Current Educational Issues
Policy Shift
Transition Stage in 1990's: Search for New Vision of Educational Ideals, New Priority & New Strategies
Policy Shift in the governance of educational system – proposed by the Presidential Commission for Educational Reform (PCER)
▪ From Quality to quantity
From Administrative accountability to Performance based accountability
From Bureaucratic regulation and control to Autonomy
From professional control, democratic control to market control
From Equality to Equality + Excellence
From Provider to Consumer orientation

39. Ⅴ. Current Educational Issues
New policy framework with choice, accountability, and autonomy
Performance-Based
Accountability:
Undefined Performance?
Procedural
Administrative
Accountability
Choice:
Charter Schools
Korean Model(?)
Autonomy:
Bottom-Up Change
- Program (Magnet)
- Personnel
- Budget
Top Down Change
Policy-Program
- National Curriculum
- Centralized Mgt.
Assignment
HEP (Korea)
Busing (US)

40. Korean Model of Expanding Access with
Ⅴ. Conclusion
Korean Model of Expanding Access with
Low-cost approach
‘Bottom-up’ approach
Egalitarian approach
Has recommendable strategic points.
Economic growth provide stable financial resources for Educational development.

41. Quality of High School Education has to be re-examined
Ⅴ. Conclusion
Quality of High School Education has to be re-examined
Concept of authentic achievement to be developed
Core competences to be defined: Core in Diversity
Development of specialized Elite vocational education institute:
GH → include Vocational Component
VH → include General Foundation
Selection system for admission to Higher Education to be developed
Student’s learning portfolio
University’s autonomy of defining the selection criteria