2. Ways of Interpreting Myth The Web of Myth Ancient Vs. Modern

3. The Web of Myth Interpreting myth is like Penelope at her loom. Thread upon thread of interpretation is interwoven in myth. As one approach to myth goes out of favor and is unraveled from the fabric, another takes its place. The result is that, like Penelope's shroud, the cloth of myth interpretation is ever- changing and can never be finished. See Sienkewicz on the Web of MythSienkewicz on the Web of Myth See also Michael Webster’s Ways of Interpreting MythsWays of Interpreting Myths

4. Ancient Ways of Viewing Myth Archaic 750-480 B.C. Classical 480-323 B.C. Hellenistic 323-146 B.C. Xenophanes Theagenes Anaxagoras Aeschylus Euripides Socrates Plato Euhemerus Myth as Venerable Tradition Questioning of Myths (Rationality) Myths as Allegory Myths as Instructive Models Myths as Inaccurate Myths of Questionable Morality Myths as Dangerous Gods as Deified Heroes and Kings Timeline: http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/Contemporaries.htmlhttp://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/Contemporaries.html

5. Xenophanes of Colophon c.570 B.C. Questioned the Anthropomorphism of the Gods #170 But mortals consider that the gods are born, and that they have clothes and speech and bodies like their own. #171 The Ethiopians say that their gods are snub- nosed and black, the Thracians that theirs have light blue eyes and red hair. #172 But if cattle and horses or lions had hands, or were able to draw with their hands and do the works that men can do, horses would draw the forms of gods like horses, and cattle like cattle, and they would make their bodies such as they each had themselves.

6. Xenophanes of Colophon c.570 B.C. Questioned Polytheism #173 One god, greatest among gods and men, in no way similar to mortals either in body or in thought. #174 Always he remains in the same place, moving not at all; nor is it fitting for him to go to different places at different times, but without toil he shakes all things but the thought of his mind. #175 All of him sees, all thinks, and all hears.

7. Myths as Allegory Theagenes of Rhegium (525 B.C.) gods as symbols of human qualities; e.g., Athena = wisdom Anaxagoras of Clazomenae (c.500-428 B.C.) The misdeeds of the gods are intended to illustrate evil and teach virtue.

8. Myths as Instructive Models (Paradigmatic Model) The Punishment of Prometheus in Prometheus BoundPrometheus Aeschylus (c.525-456 B.C.) used myth to teach Athenians about the gods and the their role in the civic life of Athens.

9. Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 309 ff : "[The Titan Okeanos visits Prometheus bound to express his sympathy:] Okeanos: I see, Prometheus; and I want to give you the best advice, although you yourself are wily. Learn to know yourself and adapt yourself to new ways; for new also is the ruler among the gods. If you hurl forth words so harsh and of such whetted edge, perhaps Zeus may hear you, though throned far off, high in the heavens, and then your present multitude of sorrows shall seem but childish sport. Oh wretched sufferer! Put away your wrathful mood and try to find release from these miseries. Perhaps this advice may seem to you old and dull; but your plight, Prometheus, is only the wages of too boastful speech. You still have not learned humility, nor do you bend before misfortune, but would rather add even more miseries to those you have. Therefore take me as your teacher and do not add insult to injury, seeing that a harsh monarch now rules who is accountable to no one. So now I will depart and see whether I can release you from these sufferings. And may you hold your peace and be not too blustering of speech. Or, can it be that for all your exceeding wisdom, you do not know that chastisement is inflicted on a wagging tongue? Prometheus: I envy you because you have escaped blame for having dared to share with me in my troubles. So now leave me alone and let it not concern you. Do what you want, you cannot persuade him [Zeus]; for he is not easy to persuade. Beware that you do not do yourself harm by the mission you take."

10. Myths as Inaccurate Euripides on the birth of Dionysus: Confusion between thigh (meron) and hostage (hemeron), a reference to the false image of Dionysus which Zeus gave to Hera as a hostage. Watch out for this in Euripides’ Bacchae (295) Homer: The Embassy Scene in the Iliad Boston Museum of Fine Arts 95.39 Attic Red-Figure Lekythos

11. Ancient Ways of Viewing Myth Archaic 750-480 B.C. Classical 480-323 B.C. Hellenistic 323-146 B.C. Xenophanes Theagenes Anaxagoras Aeschylus Euripides Socrates Plato Euhemerus Myth as Venerable Tradition Questioning of Myths (Rationality) Myths as Allegory Myths as Instructive Models Myths as Inaccurate Myths of Questionable Morality Myths as Dangerous Gods as Deified Heroes and Kings Timeline: http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/Contemporaries.htmlhttp://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/Contemporaries.html

12. Myths as Dangerous Plato Banishes Poetry (=Myths) from his Ideal Republic The poets pretend to know all sorts of things, but they really know nothing at all. The things they deal with cannot be known: they are images, far removed from what is most real. By presenting scenes so far removed from the truth poets, pervert souls, turning them away from the most real toward the least. Worse, the images the poets portray do not imitate the good part of the soul. The rational part of the soul is quiet, stable, and not easy to imitate or understand. Poets imitate the worst parts — the inclinations that make characters easily excitable and colorful. Poetry naturally appeals to the worst parts of souls and arouses, nourishes, and strengthens this base elements while diverting energy from the rational part Poetry corrupts even the best souls. It deceives us into sympathizing with those who grieve excessively, who lust inappropriately, who laugh at base things. It even goads us into feeling these base emotions vicariously. We think there is no shame in indulging these emotions because we are indulging them with respect to a fictional character and not with respect to our own lives. In Republic Book X Socrates banishes poets from the city as unwholesome and dangerous because:

13. Euhemerism On Euhemerus of Messene, see http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/euhemerus.html. http://www.csun.edu/~hcfll004/euhemerus.html From Diodorus Siculus: Now Euhemerus, who was a friend of King Cassander [of Macedonia (301 to 297 B.C.)] and was required by him to perform certain affairs of state and to make great journeys abroad, says that he traveled southward as far as the [Indian] ocean; for setting sail from Arabia he voyaged through the ocean for a considerable number of days and was carried to the shore of some islands in the sea, one of which bore the name of Panachaea. On this island he saw the Panachaeans who dwell there, who excel in piety and honor the gods with the most magnificent sacrifices and with remarkable votive offerings of silver and gold.... There is also on the island, situated on an exceedingly high hill, a sanctuary of Zeus, which was established by him during the time when he was king of all the inhabited world and was still in the company of men. And in the temple there is a stele of gold on which is inscribed in summary, in the writing employed by the Panchaeans, the deeds of Ouranos and Kronos and Zeus.

14. Ancient Ways of Viewing Myth Archaic 750-480 B.C. Classical 480-323 B.C. Hellenistic 323-146 B.C. Xenophanes Theagenes Anaxagoras Aeschylus Euripides Socrates Plato Euhemerus Myth as Venerable Tradition Questioning of Myths (Rationality) Myths as Allegory Myths as Instructive Models Myths as Inaccurate Myths of Questionable Morality Myths as Dangerous Gods as Deified Heroes and Kings Timeline: http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/Contemporaries.htmlhttp://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/Contemporaries.html

15. Modern Interpretations of Myth Externalist Theories: Myths as Products of the Environment Internalist Theories: Myths as Products of the Mind Two modern meanings of “mythology”: a system or set of myths the methodological analysis of myths A monolithic theory of myth vs. the multifunctionalism of myth The autonomy of myth See: Some Theories of MythSome Theories of Myth

16. Externalist Theories: Myths as Products of the Environment Myths as Aetiology Comparative Mythology Nature Myths Myths as Rituals Charter Myths

17. Myths as Aetiology myth as explanation of the origin of things myth as primitive science Aetiology in Greek Myth Pandora as first woman and source of evil Europa (eponymous hero) Creation myths Arachne Apollo as source of plague

18. F. Max Müller Nature Myths Max Müller 1823-1900) For Müller, the culture of the Vedic peoples represented a form of nature worship, an idea clearly influenced by Romanticismnature worship Comparative approach: Study of Vedic peoples of ancient India applied to myths of other cultures (Greece and Rome) Founder of the social scientific study of religion

19. Zeus as the Sky Dyaus pitrSanskrit –Dyaus = “he who shines” –pitr = father Zeus pater Greek Jupiter Latin Tiu Vater Teutonic (German) Indo-European

20. Myths as Ritual Sir James Frazer’ The Golden Bough (1890- 1915) myths as byproducts of ritual enactments stories to explain religious ceremonies The Golden Bough On-Line: http://www.bartleby.com/196/ Germain (1954) Cyclops myth as a very ancient initiation rite with ram cult as source

21. Charter Myths Bronsilaw Malinowski (1884-1942) Selected Bibliography: http://www.vanderbilt.edu/An S/Anthro/Anth206/malinowski.htm belief-systems set up to authorize and validate current social customs and institutions.

22. Pandora as Charter Myth Hesiod’s Works and Days 100-105 Among the people wander countless miseries; the earth is full of evils, and the sea is full; diseases come by day to people, and by night, spontaneous, rushing, bringing mortals evil things in silence, since contriving Zeus removed their voice. And thus from Zeus's mind there can be no escape.

23. Internalist Theories: Myths as Products of the Mind Individual Mind Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) Uranus and Cronos / Cronos and Zeus Oedipus complex: son’s desire to displace father Collective Mind Carl Jung (1875-1961) Male fear of female

24. Ernst Cassirer (1874-1975) German philosopher and historian of ideas, often typed as one of the leading exponents of neo-Kantian thought in the 20th century. The great symbol systems from science to mythology are not modeled on reality but model it. Myth as mind's spontaneous creation of an emotionally satisfying cosmos. More on Cassirer: http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/cassir.htmhttp://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/cassir.htm

25. Structuralism Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908-) Jean-Paul Vernant Pierre Vidal-Naquet

26. Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908-) myth reflect the mind's binary organization humans tend to see world as reflection of their own physical and cerebral structure ( two hands, eyes, legs, etc.) Left/right, raw,/cooked, pleasure/pain Myth deals with the perception and reconciliation of these opposites mediation of contradictions For more on Levi-Strauss see http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/information/biography/klmno/levi -strauss_claude.html http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/information/biography/klmno/levi -strauss_claude.html

27. DIACHRONIC vs. SYNCHRONIC To TELL the myth read the story chronologically. = DIACHRONIC To UNDERSTAND the myth, disregard chronologically and read the story thematically. = SYNCHRONIC Tension between Prometheus (Forethought) and Epimetheus (Afterthought)

28. Jean-Paul Vernant Professor at the College de France in Paris and one of the foremost classicists of our time. He is the author of numerous scholarly books on Greek thought, myths, tragedy, politics, society, and religion, including Myth and Society in Ancient Greece (1990). unveils a complex and previously unexplored intersection of the religious, social, and political structures of ancient Greece. Focuses on the alien quality of ceremonial hunting, blood sacrifice, slavery, ritualized warfare and religious esctasy in ancient Greece.

29. Feminist Approaches to Myth Marija Gimbutas (1921-1994) Marija Gimbutas was an archaeologist with a scholarly background in folklore and linguistics, making her uniquely qualified to synthesize information from science and myth into a controversial theory of a Goddess-based culture in prehistoric Europe. Joseph Campbell said that, if her work had been available to him, he would have held very different views about the archetypes of the female Divine in world mythology. Primacy of Matriarchy: Gaia in the Theogony