1. Network+ Guide to Networks 5 th Edition Chapter 6 Network Hardware

2. Objectives  Identify the functions of LAN connectivity hardware  Install, configure, and differentiate between network devices such as, NICs, hubs, bridges, switches, routers, and gateways  Explain the advanced features of a switch and understand popular switching techniques, including VLAN management  Explain the purposes and properties of routing  Describe common IPv4 and IPv6 routing protocols Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition2

3. NICs (Network Interface Cards)  Connectivity devices  Enable device transmission  Transceiver  Transmits and receives data  Physical layer and Data Link layer functions  Issue data signals  Assemble and disassemble data frames  Interpret physical addressing information  Determine right to transmit data Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition3

4. NICs (cont’d.)  Smart hardware  Perform prioritization  Network management  Buffering  Traffic-filtering  Do not analyze information  Added by Layers 3 through 7 OSI model protocols  Importance  Common to every networking device, network Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition4

5. Types of NICs  Before ordering or installing NIC  Know device interface type  NIC dependencies  Access method  Network transmission speed  Connector interfaces  Compatible motherboard or device type  Manufacturer Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition5

6. Types of NICs (cont’d.)  Bus  Circuit, signaling pathway  Motherboard uses to transmit data to computer’s components  Memory, processor, hard disk, NIC  Differ according to capacity  Defined by data path width and clock speed  Data path size  Parallel bits transmitting at any given time  Proportional to attached device’s speed Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition6

7. Internal Bus Standards  Expansion slots  Multiple electrical contacts on motherboard  Allows bus expansion  Expansion card (expansion board)  Circuit board for additional devices  Inserts into expansion slot, establishes electrical connection  Device connects to computer’s main circuit or bus  Computer centrally controls device Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition7

8. Internal Bus Standards (cont’d.)  Multiple bus types  PCI bus: most popular expansion board NIC  PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect)  32- or 64-bit bus  Clock speeds rated at 33-, 66- or 133-MHz  Maximum data transfer rate: 1 Gbps  Introduced by Intel (1992)  Latest official version: 3.0 (2004) Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition8

9.  ISA (Industry Standard Architecture)  Original PC bus type (early 1980s)  Support for 8-bit and 16-bit data path, 4.77-MHz clock  PCI bus characteristics  Shorter connector length, faster data transmission  Compared to previous bus types (ISA)  PCs and Macintosh compatible Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition9 Figure 6-1 PCI NIC

10.  PCIe (PCI Express)  32- or 64-bit bus  Maximum 133-MHz clock speed  Transfer rate  500 Mbps per data path (full-duplex transmission) Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition10 Figure 6-2 PCIe NIC

11. Internal Bus Standards (cont’d.)  PCIe advantages over PCI  More efficient data transfer  Quality of service distinctions support  Error reporting, handling  Current PCI software compatible  PCIe slots differ from conventional PCI  Vary by lanes supported  Lane offers full-duplex throughput of 500 Mbps  Support up to 16 lanes  x16 slot : 8 Gbps throughput Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition11

12.  Determining bus type  Read documentation  Look inside PC case  If more than one expansion slot type:  Refer to NIC, PC manufacturers’ guidelines  Choose NIC matching most modern bus Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition12 Figure 6-3 A motherboard with multiple expansion slots

13. Peripheral Bus Standards  Attach peripheral devices externally  External connection advantage  Simple installation  Personal Computer Memory Card International Association or PCMCIA  Sets standards for externally attached cards  Connect virtually any external device type  PC Card  First standard PCMCIA-standard adapter  16- bit interface running at 8 MHz Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition13

14.  CardBus standard (1990s)  32-bit interface running at 33 MHz  Matches PCI expansion board standard Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition14 Figure 6-4 A CardBus NIC

15. Peripheral Bus Standards (cont’d.)  ExpressCard standard  Many different external devices connect to portable computers  26-pin interface  Data transfer rates: 250 Mbps in each direction  500 Mbps total  Same data transfer standards as PCIe specification  Two sizes  34 mm, 54 mm wide Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition15

16. Peripheral Bus Standards (cont’d.) Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition16 Figure 6-5 ExpressCard modules

17. Peripheral Bus Standards (cont’d.)  USB (universal serial bus) port  Two USB standards  Difference: speed  USB 1.1: transfer rate of 12 Mbps  USB 2.0: transfer rate of 480 Mbps  Future  USB 3.0 (SuperSpeed USB)  Transfer rate: 4.8 Gbps Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition17

18. Types of NICs (cont’d.) Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition18 Figure 6-6 A USB NIC

19. Peripheral Bus Standards (cont’d.)  Firewire  Apple Computer (1980s)  IEEE 1394 standard (1995)  Traditional Firewire connection: 400 Mbps (max)  Newer version: 3 Gbps  Connects most peripheral types  Connects small network  Two or more computers using bus topology Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition19

20. Peripheral Bus Standards (cont’d.)  FireWire-connected peripherals  Similar to USB- and PCMCIA-connected peripherals  Simple installation  Supported by most modern operating systems  Two connector varieties: 4-pin and 6-pin  6-pin connector  Two pins supply power  Interconnect computers Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition20

21. Peripheral Bus Standards (cont’d.) Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition21 Figure 6-7 FireWire connectors (4-pin and 6-pin)

22. Peripheral Bus Standards (cont’d.)  CompactFlash  Designed by CompactFlash Association (CFA)  Ultrasmall  Removable data and input/output device  Latest standard: 4.0  Data transfer rate: 133 Mbps  Uses  Connects devices too small for PCMCIA slots  Wireless connections Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition22

23. Peripheral Bus Standards (cont’d.) Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition23 Figure 6-8 A CompactFlash NIC

24. On-Board NICs  Connect device directly to motherboard  On-board ports: mouse, keyboard  New computers, laptops  Use onboard NICs integrated into motherboard  Advantages  Saves space  Frees expansion slots Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition24

25. Wireless NICs  Contain antennas  Send, receive signals  All bus types supported  Disadvantages over wire-bound NICs  More expensive  Bandwidth and security limitations Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition25 Figure 6-9 Wireless NICs

26. Installing NICs  Three general steps  Install hardware  Install NIC software  Configure firmware (if necessary)  Set of data, instructions  Saved to NIC’s ROM (read-only memory) chip  Use configuration utility program  EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory)  Apply electrical charges  ROM data erased, changed Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition26

27. Installing and Configuring NIC Hardware  Read manufacturer’s documentation  Install expansion card NIC  Verify toolkit contents  Unplug computer  Ground yourself  Open computer case  Select slot, insert NIC, attach bracket, verify cables  Replace cover, turn on computer  Configure NIC software Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition27

28. Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition28 Figure 6-10 A properly inserted NIC

29. Installing and Configuring NIC Hardware (cont’d.)  Physically install PCMCIA-standard NIC  Insert card into PCMCIA slot Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition29 Figure 6-11 Installing a PCMCIA-standard NIC

30. Installing and Configuring NIC Hardware (cont’d.)  Modern operating systems  Do not require restart for PCMCIA-standard adapter  Servers, other high-powered computers  Install multiple NICs  Repeat installation process for additional NIC  Choose different slot Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition30

31. Installing and Configuring NIC Software  Device driver  Software  Enables attached device to communicate with operating system  Purchased computer  Drivers installed  Add hardware to computer  Must install drivers Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition31

32. Installing and Configuring NIC Software (cont’d.)  Operating system built-in drivers  Automatically recognize hardware, install drivers  Computer startup  Device drivers loaded into RAM  Computer can communicate with devices  Drivers not available from operating system  Install and configure NIC software  Use operating system interface Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition32

33. Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition33 Figure 6-12 Windows Vista Update Driver Software dialog box

34. Interpreting LED Indicators  After NIC is installed:  Test by transmitting data  Assess NIC LEDs for network communication  Vary by manufacturer  Read documentation  Common lights  ACT, LNK, LED, TX, RX Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition34

35. IRQ (Interrupt Request)  Message to computer  Stop and pay attention to something else  Interrupt  Circuit board wire  Device issues voltage to signal request  IRQ number  Uniquely identifies component to main bus  NICs use IRQ 9, 10, or 11 Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition35

36. Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition36 Table 6-1 IRQ assignments

37. IRQ (Interrupt Request) (cont’d.)  Two devices using same interrupt  Resource conflicts, performance problems  Many symptoms  Must reassign IRQ  Through operating system  Through adapter’s EEPROM configuration utility  Through computer’s CMOS configuration utility Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition37

38. IRQ (Interrupt Request) (cont’d.)  CMOS (complementary metal oxide semiconductor)  Microchip requiring very little energy to operate  Stores settings pertaining to computer’s devices  Battery powered  Settings saved after computer turned off  Information used by BIOS (basic input/output system)  BIOS  Simple instruction set  Enables computer to initially recognize hardware Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition38

39. Memory Range  Memory NIC, CPU use for exchanging, buffering data  Some are reserved for specific devices  NICS  High memory area (A0000–FFFFF range)  Manufacturers prefer certain ranges  Resource conflicts less likely (than IRQ settings) Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition39

40. Base I/O Port  Memory area  Channel for moving data between NIC and CPU  Cannot be used by other devices  NICs use two channel memory ranges  Base I/O port settings identify beginning of each range Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition40

41. Firmware Settings  Contain NIC’s transmission characteristics  Combination  EEPROM chip on NIC and data it holds  Change firmware  Change EEPROM chip  Requires bootable CD-ROM  Configuration, install utility shipped with NIC Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition41

42. Firmware Settings (cont’d.)  Configuration utility  View IRQ, I/O port, base memory, node address  Change settings  Perform diagnostics  NIC’s physical components, connectivity  Loopback plug (loopback adapter)  Outgoing signals redirected into computer for testing  Use with loopback test Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition42

43. Choosing the Right NIC  Considerations  Compatibility with existing system  Network bus type, access method, connector types, transmission speed  Drivers available  Operating system, hardware  Subtle differences  Affecting network performance  Important for server Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition43

44. Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition44 Table 6-2 NIC characteristics

45. Repeaters and Hubs  Repeater  Simplest connectivity device regenerating signals  Operates at Physical layer  Has no means to interpret data  Limited scope  One input port, one output port  Receives and repeats single data stream  Suitable for bus topology networks  Extend network inexpensively  Rarely used on modern networks  Limitations; other devices decreasing costs Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition45

46. Repeaters and Hubs (cont’d.)  Hub  Repeater with more than one output port  Multiple data ports, uplink port  Repeats signal in broadcast fashion  Operates at Physical layer  Ethernet network hub  Star or star-based hybrid central connection point  Connect workstations, print servers, switches, file servers, other devices Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition46

47. Repeaters and Hubs (cont’d)  Hub (cont’d.)  Devices share same bandwidth amount, collision domain  More nodes leads to transmission errors, slow performance  Placement in network varies  Simplest: stand-alone workgroup hub  Different hub to each small workgroup  Placement must adhering to maximum segment and length limitations Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition47

48. Repeaters and Hubs (cont’d) Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition48 Figure 6-13 Hubs in a network design

49.  Hub (cont’d.)  Hubs vary according to:  Supported media type, data transmission speeds  Passive hubs, Intelligent hubs (managed hubs), Stand- alone hubs (workgroup hubs)  Replaced by switches routers  Limited features  Merely repeat signals Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition49 Figure 6-14 A stand-alone hub

50. Bridges  Connects two network segments  Analyze incoming frames and decide where to send  Based on frame’s MAC address  Operate at Data Link layer  Single input port and single output port  Interpret physical addressing information  Advantages over repeaters and hubs  Protocol independence  Add length beyond maximum segments limits  Improve network performance Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition50

51.  Disadvantage compared to repeaters and hubs  Longer to transmit data  Filtering database (forwarding table)  Used in decision making  Filter or forward Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition51 Figure 6-15 A bridge’s use of a filtering database

52. Bridges (cont’d.)  New bridge installation  Learn network  Discover destination packet addresses  Record in filtering database  Destination node’s MAC address  Associated port  All network nodes discovered over time  Today bridges nearly extinct  Improved router and switch speed, functionality  Lowered router and switch cost Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition52

53. Switches  Subdivide network  Smaller logical pieces, segments  Operates at Data Link layer (traditional)  Operate at layers 3 and 4 (advanced)  Interpret MAC address information  Components  Internal processor, operating system, memory, several ports Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition53

54.  Multiport switch advantages over bridge  Better bandwidth use, more cost-efficient  Each port acts like a bridge  Each device effectively receives own dedicated channel  Ethernet perspective  Dedicated channel represents collision domain Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition54 Figure 6-16 Switches

55. Switches (cont’d.)  Historically  Switches replaced hubs, eased congestion, provided better security, performance  Disadvantages  Can become overwhelmed despite buffers  Cannot prevent data loss  UDP collisions mount: network traffic halts  Switches replaced workgroup hubs  Decreased cost, easy installation, configuration,  Separate traffic according to port Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition55

56. Installing a Switch  Follow manufacturer’s guidelines  General steps (assume Cat 5 or better UTP)  Verify switch placement  Turn on switch  Verify lights, self power tests  Configure (if necessary)  Connect NIC to a switch port (repeat for all nodes)  After all nodes connected, turn on nodes  Connect switch to larger network (optional) Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition56

57. Installing a Switch (cont’d.) Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition57 Figure 6-17 Connecting a workstation to a switch Figure 6-18 A switch on a small network

58. Switching Methods  Difference in switches  Incoming frames interpretation  Frame forwarding decisions making  Four switching modes exist  Two basic methods discussed  Cut-Through Mode  Store-and-Forward Mode Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition58

59. Cut-Through Mode  Switch reads frame’s header  Forwarding decision made before receiving entire packet  Uses frame header: first 14 bytes contains destination MAC address  Cannot verify data integrity using frame check sequence  Can detect runts  Erroneously shortened packets  Runt detected: wait for integrity check Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition59

60. Cut-Through Mode (cont’d.)  Cannot detect corrupt packets  May propagate flawed packets  Advantage  Speed  Disadvantage  Data buffering (switch flooded with traffic)  Best use  Small workgroups needing speed  Low number of devices Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition60

61. Store-and-Forward Mode  Switch reads entire data frame into memory  Checks for accuracy before transmitting information  Advantage over cut-through mode  Transmit data more accurately  Disadvantage over cut-through mode  More time consuming  Best use  Larger LAN environments; mixed environments  Can transfer data between segments running different transmission speeds Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition61

62. VLANs and Trunking  VLANs (virtual local area networks)  Logically separate networks within networks  Groups ports into broadcast domain  Broadcast domain (subnet)  Port combination making a Layer 2 segment  Ports rely on layer 2 device to forward broadcast frames  Collision domain  Ports in same broadcast domain  Do not share single channel Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition62

63. VLANs and Trunking (cont’d.) Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition63 Figure 6-19 A simple VLAN design

64. VLANs and Trunking (cont’d.)  Advantage of VLANs  Flexible  Ports from multiple switches or segments  Use any end node type  Reasons for using VLAN  Separating user groups  Isolating connections  Identifying priority device groups  Grouping legacy protocol devices Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition64

65. VLANs and Trunking (cont’d.)  VLAN creation  Configuring switch software  Manually through configuration utility  Automatically using VLAN software tool  Critical step  Indicate to which VLAN each port belongs  Additional specifications  Security parameters, filtering instructions, port performance requirements, network addressing and management options  Maintain VLAN by switch software Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition65

66. Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition66 Figure 6-20 Result of the show vlans command on a Cisco switch

67. VLANs and Trunking (cont’d.)  Potential VLAN issues  Cutting off group from rest of network  Correct by using router  Trunking  Switch’s interface carries traffic of multiple VLANs  Trunk  Single physical connection between devices  Many logical VLANs transmit, receive data  VLAN data separation  Frame contains VLAN identifier in header Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition67

68. VLANs and Trunking (cont’d.)  Advantage of VLAN trunking  Economical interface usage  Switches make efficient use of processing capabilities  VLAN configuration  Can be complex  Requires careful planning  Ensure users and devices can exchange data  Ensure VLAN switch properly interacts with other devices Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition68

69. STP (Spanning Tree Protocol)  IEEE standard 802.1D  Operates in Data Link layer  Prevents traffic loops  Calculating paths avoiding potential loops  Artificially blocking links completing loop  Three steps  Select root bridge based on Bridge ID  Examine possible paths between network bridge and root bridge  Disables links not part of shortest path Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition69

70. STP (cont’d.) Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition70 Figure 6-21 Enterprise-wide switched network

71. STP (cont’d.) Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition71 Figure 6-22 STP-selected paths on a switched network

72. STP (cont’d.)  History  Introduced in 1980s  Original STP too slow  RSTP (Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol)  Newer version  IEEE’s 802.1w standard  Cisco and Extreme Networks  Proprietary versions  No enabling or configuration needed  Included in switch operating software  May alter default priorities Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition72

73. Content and Multilayer Switches  Layer 3 switch (routing switch)  Interprets Layer 3 data  Layer 4 switch  Interprets Layer 4 data  Content switch (application switch)  Interprets Layer 4 through Layer 7 data  Advantages  Advanced filtering, statistics keeping, security functions Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition73

74. Content and Multilayer Switches (cont’d.)  Disadvantages  No agreed upon standard  Layer 3 and Layer 4 switch features vary widely  Distinguishing between Layer 3 and Layer 4 switch  Manufacturer dependent  Higher-layer switches  Three times Layer 2 switches  Used in backbone Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition74

75. Routers  Multiport connectivity device  Directs data between network nodes  Integrates LANs and WANs  Different transmission speeds, protocols  Operate at Network layer (Layer 3)  Directs data from one segment or network to another  Logical addressing  Protocol dependent  Slower than switches and bridges  Need to interpret Layers 3 and higher information Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition75

76. Routers (cont’d.)  Traditional stand-alone LAN routers  Being replaced by Layer 3 routing switches  New niche  Specialized applications  Linking large Internet nodes  Completing digitized telephone calls Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition76

77. Router Characteristics and Functions  Intelligence  Tracks node location  Determine shortest, fastest path between two nodes  Connects dissimilar network types  Large LANs and WANs  Routers indispensible  Router components  Internal processor, operating system, memory, input and output jacks, management control interface Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition77

78.  Modular router  Multiple slots  Holding different interface cards, other devices  Inexpensive routers  Home, small office use Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition78 Figure 6-23 Routers

79. Router Characteristics and Functions (cont’d.)  Router tasks  Connect dissimilar networks  Interpret Layer 3 addressing  Determine best data path  Reroute traffic  Optional functions  Filter broadcast transmissions  Enable custom segregation, security  Support simultaneous connectivity  Provide fault tolerance  Monitor network traffic, diagnose problems Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition79

80. Router Characteristics and Functions (cont’d.)  Directing network data  Static routing  Administrator programs specific paths between nodes  Dynamic routing  Router automatically calculates best path between two nodes  Routing table  Installation  Simple: small office, home LANs  Challenging: sizeable networks Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition80

81. Router Characteristics and Functions (cont’d.) Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition81 Figure 6-24 The placement of routers on a LAN

82. Routing Protocols  Best path  Most efficient route from one node to another  Dependent on:  Hops between nodes  Current network activity  Unavailable link  Network transmission speed  Topology  Determined by routing protocol Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition82

83. Routing Protocols (cont’d.)  Routing protocol  Router communication  Collects current network status data  Contribute to best path selection  Routing table creation  Router convergence time  Time router takes to recognize best path  Change or network outage event  Distinguishing feature  Overhead; burden on network to support routing protocol Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition83

84. Distance-Vector: RIP, RIPv2, BGP  Distance-vector routing protocols  Determine best route based on distance to destination  Factors  Hops, latency, network traffic conditions  RIP (Routing Information Protocol)  Only factors in number of hops between nodes  Limits 15 hops  Interior routing protocol  Slow and less secure Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition84

85. Distance-Vector: RIP, RIPv2, BGP (cont’d.)  RIPv2 (Routing Information Protocol Version 2)  Generates less broadcast traffic, more secure  Cannot exceed 15 hops  Less commonly used  BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)  Communicates using BGP-specific messages  Many factors determine best paths  Configurable to follow policies  Most complex (choice for Internet traffic) Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition85

86. Link-State: OSPF, IS-IS  Link-state routing protocol  Routers share information  Each router independently maps network, determines best path  OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)  Interior or border router use  No hop limit  Complex algorithm for determining best paths  Each OSPF router  Maintains database containing other routers’ links Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition86

87. Link-State: OSPF, IS-IS (cont’d.)  IS-IS (Intermediate System to Intermediate System)  Codified by ISO  Interior routers only  Supports two Layer 3 protocols  IP  ISO-specific protocol  Less common than OSPF Network+ Guide to Networks, 5 th Edition87

88. Hybrid: EIGRP  Hybrid  Link-state and distance-vector characteristics  EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)  Most popular  Cisco network routers only  EIGRP benefits  Fast convergence time, low network overhead  Easier to configure and less CPU-intensive than OSPF  Supports multiple protocols  Accommodates very large, heterogeneous networks Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition88

89. Gateways and Other Multifunction Devices  Gateway  Combinations of networking hardware and software  Connecting two dissimilar networks  Connect two systems using different formatting, communications protocols, architecture  Repackages information  Reside on servers, microcomputers, connectivity devices, mainframes  Popular gateways  E-mail gateway, Internet gateway, LAN gateway, Voice/data gateway, Firewall Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition89

90. Summary  NIC interface cards  Types, installation, testing, IRQ use, Base I/O port use, firmware settings, selection  Repeater and hubs  Bridges  Switches  Installation, switching methods, VLANs and trunking, STP (Spanning Tree Protocol), Content and Multilayer Switches  Router characteristics and functions, protocols  Gateways and other multifunction devices Network+ Guide to Networks, 5th Edition90