1. Chapter 13 – Univariate data

2. What is THIS topic about?
In this topic, we look at data sets (i.e. groups of numbers) and we apply mathematical tests to the data to learn about it
A data set is a group of numbers that we find from research e.g. survey results, observations of the world
‘Univariate’ means that there is one (‘uni’) variable (‘variate’)
A variable is something that varies or changes
We measure this variable in order to learn about whatever we are researching

3. 13A: Measures of central tendency
Measures of central tendency are methods that we use to look at the middle or centre point of the data we have collected through research
There are three different ways of doing this:
Mean: the average of all observations in a set of data ( 𝑥 )
Median: the middle observation in an set of data that is put in order
Mode:  the most frequent/common observation in a data set
Grouped vs ungrouped data sets
Ungrouped means each individual data observation is looked at within the data set
Grouped means that the data has been put into different groups or intervals, rather than looking at each data observation separately

4. Symbols and tables
Frequency table: used to count the number of times something is observed
‘Frequency’ just means the number of observations
means ‘sum’ or ‘total’
𝑥 is called ‘x bar’ and is the symbol for ‘mean’ or ‘average’
Observation
Frequency
Red cars 2
Blue cars 5
Yellow cars 3

5. The following applies to ungrouped data sets

6. Mean ( 𝑥 ) To find the mean (average) of the data set:
Add all the observations/scores in the data set together (they do not have to be in order)
Divide by the number of observations/scores
We can write this as:
Or, as:
where x is the scores
and n is the number of scores

7. Finding the mean: worked example
Find the mean of the data set: 6, 2, 4, 3, 4, 5, 4, 5
Add the observations/scores together (in other words, find 𝑥 which is the total/sum of the scores)
𝑥 =
𝑥 = 33
Divide by the number of scores (n)
There are 8 scores in this data set (n = 8)
𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑛
𝑥 = 33 8
𝑥 = 4.125

8. Median To find the median (middle/centre score) of the data set:
Arrange the scores in numerical order (smallest to biggest is the easiest way)
Put one finger on the smallest score, and a finger on the biggest score, and move your fingers inward one number at a time until they meet at the middle score
If there are an odd number of scores, the median is the middle score
If there are an even number of scores, find the mean/average ( 𝑥 ) of the two middle scores

9. Finding the MEDIAN: worked example
Find the median of the data set: 6, 2, 4, 3, 4, 5, 4, 5, 3
Put the scores in numerical order:
2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 6
Working inwards from the smallest and biggest numbers, we find that the middle score is 4
Therefore, the median of this data set is 4.

10. Mode To find the mode (most frequent/common score) of the data set:
Work through the data set and record how many times each score appears (it might be easier to put them in order first to ensure you don’t miss any)
Whichever score appears most frequently/commonly is the mode
Note:
Sometimes there is no mode – each score appears once only
Sometimes there is one clear mode – one number that appears most frequently/commonly
Sometimes there is more than one mode

11. Finding the Mode: worked example
Find the mode of the data set: 6, 2, 4, 3, 4, 5, 4, 5, 3
(optional, but useful) Put the scores in numerical order:
2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 6
Determine which number (or numbers) appear most commonly
In this case, the mode is 4 (it appears three times in this data set)

12. Calculating the mean, median and mode from a frequency table
First, we draw up a table with four columns: Score (x), Frequency (f), Frequency x score (fx), Cumulative frequency (cf)
We find the MEAN using this formula:
f = frequency, x = the scores
We find the MEDIAN by finding the position of each score in cumulative frequency column
We then use the formula to find where (at what position) the median will appear, and read this score off the cf
column
We find the MODE by looking for the score with the highest frequency

13. Worked example: frequency table
This is what the question might look like: Find the mean, median and mode of the data set below.
If you were to write this data out as a list, it would be:
4, 5, 5, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 7, 7, 7, 7, 8, 8, 8 (i.e. one 4, two 5s, five 6s, four 7s, three 8s)
Score (x)
Frequency (f) 4 1 5 2 6 7 8 3
Total n

14. Worked example: frequency table
Draw up this table, but add these two extra columns:
Score (x)
Frequency (f)
Frequency x score (fx)
Cumulative frequency (cf) 4 1 5 2 6 7 8 3
Total n
(fx)

15. Worked example: frequency table
In this column, add the frequencies together from one row to the next (the first number will always be the first frequency)
In this column, multiple the score by the frequency
Fill in all the data
Score (x)
Frequency (f)
Frequency x score (fx)
Cumulative frequency (cf) 4 1
4 x 1 = 4 5 2
5 x 2 = 10
1 + 2 = 3 6
6 x 5 = 30
3 + 5 = 8 7
7 x 4 = 28
8 + 4 = 12 8 3
8 x 3 = 24
= 15
Total
n = 15
(fx) = 96
(not needed)

16. Worked example: frequency table
MEAN
Use the formula:
𝑥 =
𝑥 =6.4
MEDIAN
Locate the position of the median using
Median position =
= 8, which means that the median is the 8th score
Use the cf column to find the 8th score, which is 6
MODE
The score with the highest frequency is 6, therefore 6 is the mode
Use the data to find the mean, median and mode
Score (x)
Frequency (f)
Frequency x score (fx)
Cumulative frequency (cf) 4 1 5 2 10 3 6 30 8 7 28 12 24 15
Total
n = 15
(fx) = 96

17. Questions (ungrouped data)
Exercise 13A page 435 questions:
1acd
2 (stem and leaf plot – see )
3 (frequency tables)
13abcd
The stem is the first number, and the leaves are the second number, so for Science,
ǀ 3
becomes 38, 37 and 33.
For Maths,
4 ǀ
becomes 40, 46 and 48.

18. The following applies to Grouped data sets
When data is grouped, we lose the original values, because instead of having individual numbers, we are given an interval or group (e.g. 0-10)
Therefore, we need to estimate the mean, median and mode using different methods

19. Mean
With class intervals, the individual values are lost.
Use midpoints of the intervals into which these values fall.
For example, when measuring heights of students in a class, if we found that 4 students had a height between 180 and 185 cm, we have to assume that each of those 4 students is cm tall. The formula used for calculating the mean is the same as for data presented in a frequency table 
Here x represents the midpoint (or class centre) of each class interval, f is the corresponding frequency and n is the total number of observations in a set.
Median
The median is found by drawing a cumulative frequency polygon (ogive) of the data and estimating the median from the 50th percentile.
Modal class
We do not find a mode because exact scores are lost. We can, however, find a modal class. This is the class interval that has the highest frequency.

20. Worked example: grouped data

21. Step 1
Draw up this table but add in three columns: ‘midpoint’, ‘midpoint x frequency’ and ‘cumulative frequency’ (the blue is the stuff I have added)
Class interval
Midpoint (x)
Frequency (f)
Midpoint x frequency (fx)
Cumulative frequency (cf)
60-<70 5
70-<80 7
80-<90 10
90-<100 12
100-<110 8
110-<120 3
Total
(not needed)
45 (n)
(fx)

22. This means the mid point of the class interval (i. e
This means the mid point of the class interval (i.e. the middle number between 60 and 70 is 65 etc.)
Step 2
Fill in the data
Class interval
Midpoint (x)
Frequency (f)
Midpoint x frequency (fx)
Cumulative frequency (cf)
60-<70 65 5
65 x 5 = 325
70-<80 75 7
75 x 7 = 525
5 + 7 = 12
80-<90 85 10
85 x 10 = 850
= 22
90-<100 95 12
95 x 12 = 1140
= 34
100-<110
105 8
105 x 8 = 840
= 42
110-<120
115 3
115 x 3 = 345
= 45
Total
(not needed)
45 (n)
(fx) = 4025

23. Step 3 MEAN Use the formula: 𝑥 = 4025 45 𝑥 =89.4
𝑥 =
𝑥 =89.4
Therefore, we can say that the mean is ≈ 89.4
(use a wavy equals sign to show that it is approximate as the we had to use intervals rather than individual data)
MODAL CLASS
The interval with the highest frequency is
90-<100, which is the modal class.
Use the data to find the mean, modal class and median
Class interval
Midpoint (x)
Frequency (f)
Midpoint x frequency (fx)
Cumulative frequency (cf)
60-<70 65 5
325
70-<80 75 7
525 12
80-<90 85 10
850 22
90-<100 95
1140 34
100-<110
105 8
840 42
110-<120
115 3
345 45
Total
45 (n)
(fx) = 4025

24. 1. Draw a combined cumulative frequency histogram (bar graph)
MEDIAN
1. Draw a combined cumulative frequency histogram (bar graph)
The mid points for each interval go along the bottom (x) axis, and the cumulative frequency (cf) up along the y axis
2. Draw a dot on each corner where the bars meet, and connect the dots with a line (this is called the ogive)
3. Find the middle of the cf axis (which is the last cf value divided by 2  45 ÷ 2 = 22.5)
4. Draw a horizontal line at this point and see where it meets the ogive
5. Draw a vertical line down to meet the data (x) axis
6. This is the approximate median, so we say that the median ≈ 90
(again, use the wavy equals sign)
Class interval
Midpoint (x)
Frequency (f)
Midpoint x frequency (fx)
Cumulative frequency (cf)
60-<70 65 5
325
70-<80 75 7
525 12
80-<90 85 10
850 22
90-<100 95
1140 34
100-<110
105 8
840 42
110-<120
115 3
345 45
Total
45 (n)
(fx) = 4025

25. Questions (grouped data)
Exercise 13A page 435 questions: 5
8 (multiple choice abcd)