1. Definition of a Case Study
“A case is a factual description of events that actually happened at some point in the past…..It is designed to elicit discussion and analysis of a particular situation.” Naumes & Naumes, p. 10
This definition sounds like a teaching purpose. 1

2. Another Definition
“A case study is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident.”
(Yin, p. 13) 2

3. Case Studies for Research
Alternative Research Methods
Quantitative Economics
Theoretical Economics
Business Organization and Strategy
Case Study Methods 3

4. Advantages of Case Study Research
Interesting
Local
Methods may suit the researcher
Study of actual situation in a realistic setting 4

5. Advantages of Case Study Research
Ability to study impact of actions over time
Ability to determine causes (why it happened)
Place the situation in an overall environment
More depth possible than with a survey
Full study of complex process 5

6. Advantages of Case Study Research
Answers questions not suited for aggregate methods
Why?
How?
Example: Mergers and acquisitions 6

7. Advantages of Case Study Research on Mergers and Acquisitions
Existing academic work on merger activity is large sample and has mixed results.
Case study approach illuminates the following questions:
1.      What factors lead to mergers and acquisitions?
2.      Why does an acquisition succeed or fail?
 Source: Steven N. Kaplan, ed. Mergers and Productivity, Natl Bureau of Economic Research Conf Rpt., Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press, 2000. 7

8. Disadvantages of Case Study Research
Difficult to generalize
Difficult to demonstrate reliability
Subjectivity and potential bias
Not widely accepted 8

9. Goals of Research Explain phenomenon Evaluate successes and failures
Predict the future
Assist decision-makers to improve their actions 9

10. Approaches to Research
Quantitative Economics
Survey
Market-level data collection
Analysis: Econometrics, “large-sample” statistical techniques
Theoretical Economics
Analytical methods use mathematics
Derive testable hypotheses
These are the common modes in economics -business.
Need to read Eastwood and Brooker to see how they bring theory into the research. Need some notes and statements about the statistical methods
Example 2: Value added. Insert the objectives here. Give the formulas for the ratios. 10

11. Research design process
Rigorous statistical and quantitative techniques have tended to discount the importance of design
We all do the same thing
Research is driven by data
Case studies require individual design and careful planning 11

12. Types of Research Cases
Descriptive cases
Traces a sequence of events and discovers key phenomenon. Provides background on important trends in the economic sector.
Evaluative cases
Why was this program successful? 12

13. Types of Research Cases
Explanatory cases
Objective is to pose competing explanations for the same set of events. Compare the competing explanations to the actual course of events to find the best explanation.
Decision-focus cases
This is most common in business management teaching, less common in research. The case builds up to a decision. 13

14. Review: What is a Case Study?
Definition
A story
Actual events
In their context, industry, time, economy 14

15. Elements of a good story
It has a beginning and an end
It has detail, so the listener can picture what is being described
It has engaging events and/or characters
It has a theme, or a message
It has a style
Read Naumes and Naumes, chapter 1; and Yin, chapter 1. 15

16. How Can a Story be Valid Research?
Careful attention to data collection and presentation.
Complete
Unbiased
Relating the events to theory and prior knowledge.
Strong analysis, including quantitative elements. 16

17. Steps in Research Design
Problem definition
Design (planning)
Data collection
Analysis (drawing conclusions)
Composition and reporting 17

18. 1. Problem Definition 18

19. Start with specific hypothesis
Transition: How do we get these hypotheses? Back up and review the literature. 19

20. Development of Hypotheses
Handout the sequence of questions that I used in value-added project.
Point out the issue of state government. At times, I think the project should relate to state assistance. Other times, I don’t.
Also indicate how merger and acquisition theme was not present in the initial phases of the research problem statement. 20

21. Review the literature 21

22. 2. Research Design 22

23. Strategy versus design
Research strategy
Case study
Survey
Archival
These are the methods used to answer the study questions.
Research design
Specific action plan
“A research design is the logic that links the data to be collected (and the conclusions to be drawn) to the initial questions of a study.” (Yin p. 18)
Helps assure that the evidence addresses the original research question. 23

24. Components of Research Design
Questions of the study
Propositions of the study
Unit(s) of analysis
Logic linking the data to the propositions
Criteria for interpreting the findings 24

25. Questions of the Study
Insert a few more from value added (most recent).
Develop two or three from our UIDE case. 25

26. Propositions of the Study
Distinction between question and proposition 26

27. Unit of Analysis
Yes!
Cases can have a primary unit of analysis, and an embedded or related unit of analysis. 27

28. Logic Linking Data and Propositions
This is the most difficult concept in case study research. 28

29. Criteria for Interpreting the Findings
There is little guidance in this area.
One thing I have read is: How generalizable? How “representative?”
Look at the farm info case for a quote. 29

30. Quality of Research Design
Construct validity
Internal validity
External validity
Reliability
read Yin page 33
Example of construct validity. 30

31. Establishing correct operational procedures.
Construct validity:
Establishing correct operational procedures.
Avoid subjectivity
Example: Bias in selecting case because poor performers will not participate
Select indicators that measure the phenomenon of interest
Example: Employment numbers for the acquired firm
Use multiple sources of evidence
Need to read Yin on what these mean.
Example of construct validity: Using direct quotes instead of the author’s own words. Planning to interview more than one person in a firm. When reporting employment numbers, also try to find out who was fired and why. 31

32. Establishing a causal relationship
Internal validity:
Establishing a causal relationship
Avoid spurious effects
Use caution in making inferences
Think through any rival explanations and try to rule them out
This will be important for explanatory cases, but not descriptive or exploratory cases
Need to read Yin on what these mean.
Example of construct validity. 32

33. Establish the domain to which conclusions can be generalized
External validity:
Establish the domain to which conclusions can be generalized
Do not attempt to show statistical generalizability
Generalize case study findings to theory
Replication logic through multiple cases 33

34. Reliability:
Demonstrating that the study can be replicated and the same results would occur
This does not mean doing the same case study over.
It means documenting procedures carefully.
Choose methods that can be defended to a reviewer.
Having established methods improves reliability because biases are minimized.
Use a case study protocol.
Need to bring the Doye case study with me. 34

35. Assignment 1
Give an example of each of the criteria for judging the quality of research designs, for a case study you might want to do.
Why are we doing this now? 35

36. Assignment 2, 3, 4 Practice the steps in research design
Critique the research design of published case studies 36

37. Conclusions about Research Design
It is not easy!
Researchers must be flexible in implementing their plans.
However, a plan is essential!
Without a research design, you could end up having worked hard to collect information that does not answer the key questions 37

38. 3. Data Collection
There are six types of data collected in case studies:
1.     Documents.
2.     Archival records.
3.     Interviews.
4.     Direct observation.
5.     Participant observation.
6. Artifacts. 38

39. Review on Research Design
Objectives of the study are clear.
Research design provides the action plan.
Considerable thought has been applied to the project.
Now it’s time to carry out the data collection phase. 39

40. Six Sources of Evidence
Documentation
Both inside and outside the company
Local library
Government agencies
Companies’ files
Archival records
U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission
State tax records 40

41. Six Sources of Evidence
Interviews
Problems of bias, poor recall, and poor or inaccurate articulation.
Direct observation
Participant-observation
The researcher takes a direct role in the event. Sometimes researcher take a short-term position within the company.
Physical artifacts
Example: Product packages in grocery stores
Discuss the importance of direct observation in the cold chain study. What are the implications of visiting in June? What technical knowledge of the industry is needed to evaluate fairly through direct observation? 41

42. Three principles of data collection
Use multiple sources of evidence
Create a case study database
Maintain a chain of evidence
The goal is to allow reader to work backward from the case conclusions to the evidence used in drawing the conclusions. The case study report will include references to the specific documents, interviews, or observations.
Bring the notes from the cold chain study interviews. First step in a database. We did not take it much further. 42

43. Case Study Protocol
Document that contains the instruments, procedures, and general rules that will be followed in using the instrument. (Instrument refers to questionnaire that will be used in interviews)
It is a tactic that will improve the reliability of the case results.
It is essential in a multiple case project or a project that uses many investigators.
Example of the Doye report’s case study protocol. 43

44. Sections of the Case Study Protocol
Overview of the project
Field procedures
Case study questions
Guide for the case study report
Example of the Doye report’s case study protocol.
Bring the cold chain study letter of introduction as an example.
Try to write the project overview for the Value Added project. 44

45. Field Procedures-What to Cover
Referrals
If an interview goes well, people are willing to provide a referral.
Is there time and interest in following up?
Documents
Mail home or read now?
Credentials (of researchers)
Business cards for students
See Naumes and Naumes.
Talk about my personal experiences.
Another example: An interviewee volunteers the name and contact information for a person who might be helpful. The field procedure will specify whether the researcher should follow up right away with the new subject, or should the research be confined to the original list of subjects. 45

46. Field Procedures-What to Cover
Locations
Address and directions
Contingencies
What if researchers are late?
What if there is a cancellation-can another person in the company substitute?
See Naumes and Naumes.
Talk about my personal experiences.
Another example: An interviewee volunteers the name and contact information for a person who might be helpful. The field procedure will specify whether the researcher should follow up right away with the new subject, or should the research be confined to the original list of subjects. 46

47. Field Procedures-What to Cover
Note-taking or recording
Observational notes
Theoretical notes
Methodological notes
See Naumes and Naumes. (p 62, N&N) regarding the note-taking
Talk about my personal experiences. Unable to use the tape recorder. Double note-taking by me and colleagues. 47

48. Case Study Questions in the Protocol
Reminders for the researchers 48

49. Value of the Case Study Protocol
Unites and trains the research team as it is being prepared.
Requires that researchers anticipate problems.
Can be used in future case studies.
Example of the Doye report’s case study protocol. 49

50. 4. Analysis Most difficult phase in research process.
Generalization phase
Goal: address the initial propositions of the study, while treating the evidence fairly
Result:
compelling, interesting conclusions
evidence that rules out competing explanations
So What? 50

51. Analytic Generalization
Does this case support one theory versus a rival theory?
Multiple cases are different experiments. If two or more cases support the theory, then replication can be claimed.
In contrast to STATISTICAL GENERALIZATION, which is never possible with a case study.
Replication does not mean that the next similar experiment will also come out with that result, but it is worth pointing out. 51

52. Figure 1. Making Inferences: Two Levels
theory
rival theory
policy
implication
rival policy
implication
SURVEY
CASE STUDY
EXPERIMENT
population
characteristics
case study
findings
experimental
findings
LEVEL
ONE
Going from sample to popn characteristics is the domain of statistical generalization.
In analytic generalization, a previously developed theory is used as the template for a comparison to the results of the case study.
Statements such as, “the case results are consistent with the theory of xxx” are what we can say
We cannot say, “the case results show that agribusinesses are doing …”
The strongest outcome is to have a case result that supports one theory and thus helps to rule out a rival theory. The difficulty is when the case results are consistent with two different explanations.
Descriptive and exploratory cases: We can state that “these are factors that affected this decision” or “these events happened.” From a research point of view, these types of results are fine but quite limited. Not as much depth as we would like as academic researchers.
Also see chapter 5 in Yin for more on this subject.
sample
subjects
Figure 1. Making Inferences: Two Levels
Source: COSMOS Corporation. (in Yin p.31) 52

53. Analytic Strategy
Develop the strategy early in the research project. Include it in the case study protocol.
Identify the priorities of what to analyze, and why.
Rely on theoretical propositions that led to the case study in the beginning.
Descriptive strategy may be easier to plan, but it is usually less interesting.
A descriptive strategy breaks down by topics. Example: size of firm, number of employees, products.
An often-used example for the theoretical strategy is Porter’s 5 forces.
BRING JUAN’s OUTLINE.
Bring my case questions and see if there is any theoretical strategy.
Consider the Connor and Schiek categories as a theoretical base. 53

54. Modes of Analysis Pattern matching Explanation building
Time series analysis
Program logic models
Analyzing embedded units
Making repeated observations
Secondary analysis across cases
Dominant modes
The remaining 3 are lesser modes.
Look at the Doye case for Cross-case analysis. 54

55. Assignment 7 Analyze the analytic process
Find the section of the case in which evidence is presented and conclusions are drawn.
Describe the linkage between cited evidence and conclusions.
Are data displayed in tables? Other formats?
Are comparisons being made?
Are the linkages made in such a way that conclusions are convincing? 55

56. Pattern Matching Mode of Analysis
Identify a pattern from theory
Predict that other circumstances will follow the pattern
Find empirical evidence regarding the pattern from a case study
If the patterns coincide, the results strengthen internal validity of the case 56

57. Pattern Matching Mode of Analysis
Example: Theory on the location of agribusiness suggests that “supply-oriented” firms locate near agricultural production areas (Connor and Schiek). This is pattern-matching, used to explain why firms locate in urban or rural areas.
The pattern of location of one firm, or the various units of a corporation, could be examined in a case study.
Evidence about the firm’s products is normally the deciding factor in considering the firm to be “supply–oriented” or not.
Does this question about location require a case study method of analysis? No. We have government data collected at the county level, and a standard econometric model can be developed to test the hypothesis.
Example: Arrowhead is in a rural area. Celestial is in Boulder. Any plans to move Arrowhead to a metro area? 57

58. Pattern Matching Mode of Analysis
Another example: Mergers and acquisitions accompany a “shock.”
Regulatory, or technological changes
Series of cases support the pattern
Case studies from value added project
Shock for Arrowhead – capital markets in 1998?
Shock for Bimbo – NAFTA?
If my cases don’t follow the pattern, are the cases weak or is the pattern incorrect? 58

59. Pattern Matching – Two Techniques
Non-equivalent dependent variables: ALL of the elements must be present for pattern to be supported.
Rival explanations: Focus on the known outcome, seeking the reasons behind the outcome.
“how” and “why” type questions.
rival theoretical explanations behind the outcome.
mutually exclusive
Dependent variable is the effect.
Independent variable is the cause. 59

60. Explanation Building Mode of Analysis
Iterative, repeated pattern matching
Revise the predicted pattern after empirical evidence is discovered
Assignment 7: Constructing an explanation
Identify some observable changes that have been going on in the university. Develop an explanation for these changes. Indicate the critical set of evidence that you would collect to support or to challenge this explanation. If such evidence were available, would your explanation be complete? Would it be compelling? 60

61. Time Series Mode of Analysis
Identify a change, or a disruption in the normal time series.
Case studies using the time series mode of analysis use more public data, and do not rely as much on interviews.
Well-suited for cause and effect analysis that is needed to trace important changes in organizations. 61

62. Time Series Mode of Analysis
Example: Acquisition of Arrowhead Mills by Hain Food Group. The firm went from privately held to a unit of a publicly traded corporation.
Hypothesis: Sales increase as the capital constraint is relaxed. Collect sales information to determine if the trend was altered after acquisition.
Another Hypothesis: Employee turnover changed under the new management. 62

63. Time Series Mode of Analysis
Example of a Chronology: Connor’s case study of Archer Daniels Midland, Inc.
Note how the case is analytical and not simply the reporting of events.
Do a group activity of listing the chronology of events on the board. Next to it, put the analytical and interpretive comments.
How did Connor organize this in the case write-up? Could it be written differently and still convey the analytical content adequately? 63

64. Analysis of Embedded Units
Topic within a case study
Surveys of individuals within a community-based case
It is important to focus on the case unit of interest and not simply aggregate the embedded units. 64

65. Quantitative and Qualitative Data
Example: Value-added cases
U.S. government data on aggregated firms, by states and by counties
How can this be merged with case findings?
How can this be compared with case findings?
Assignment 8
There is always a need for data on the market and industry environment to frame the context of the case firm. 65

66. Research at the Firm Level versus Case Study
Surveys of many firms are not cases.
Surveys of a few firms are not always case studies.
This is where we can get caught with small-n samples and lack the detail or analytical procedures that make a good case.
Simulation of a firm. Case studies are never simulated. 66

67. Principles of High Quality Analysis
Rely on all the relevant evidence
Include all major rival interpretations
Address the most significant aspect of the case study
Bring your own prior expert knowledge to the case study
Reviewer’s comments will be helpful in coming up with alternative rival explanations and interpretations. 67

68. 5. Composition and Reporting
Statement of purpose
Outline the research hypotheses
Present the case facts
“Rigorous and fair presentation of empirical data”
Limit the text to those facts that relate specifically to the research objectives
Common problems with written research cases: Yin says they traditionally are too long and unreadable. See Yin chapter 6 on alternative ways to write cases. 68

69. 5. Composition and Reporting
Include a literature review
Statement of the methodology
When and where interviews occurred
Who was interviewed
Method by which questions were developed
Analysis of how the case situation supports or disproves the hypotheses.
Limit the text to those facts that relate specifically to the research objectives
Common problems with written research cases: Yin says they traditionally are too long and unreadable. See Yin chapter 6 on alternative ways to write cases. 69

70. Active Writing Style A character A “hook”
These features are especially important for cases used in teaching. 70

71. Outlining Cases Published examples Outlines of case in progress
Single case
Case study series
Outlines of case in progress
Examples to outline:
A Harvard case (Webvan)
An RAE case (Connor)
The series by Doye 71

72. Supplemental Material
Data
Figures
Instructor’s notes
Literature review
I would attach as much as possible. In business, it is standard to include financial statements, industry data, and other quantitative supplemental material.
For a teaching case, instructors notes are LONG and very useful. We rarely see Instructors Notes in AGEC cases. 72

73. Linkages to Theory
This is the most important element of the conclusion of a research case
Example: case series on mergers (Kaplan) 73

74. Structure of the Report
Linear-analytic
Comparative
Chronological
Theory-building
“Suspense”
Unsequenced
From Yin chapter 6, p. 138 74

75. Anonymous Sources or Cases
It is best to use actual names, firms, and people
Obtain release forms (signed) and written permission to use quotes 75

76. Review by Participants
Final step in release process
Helpful in re-writing and improving
Time-consuming 76