1. An overview of asynchronous learning models and practices
Richard Walker – E-Learning Development Team
Distance Learning Forum workshop: 1st July 2014
Asynchronous teaching and learning: A practitioner workshop for distance learning providers at York

2. Some questions to ponder…..
How do we define asynchronous distance learning? What do we mean by this term?
What models of learning can be supported asynchronously and how do they relate to distance learning pedagogy?
What evidence is there to validate asynchronous distance learning practices and their outcomes for student learning?

3. Defining distance learning
What is distance learning?
No single definition, but there are some key characteristics:
(i) Separation of instructor & learner (ii) Use of media (3 generations of development from postal  mass media interactive technologies …….. leading to 4th generation semantic web technologies???) (iii) two-way communication between instructor and learner (Carswell & Venkatesh, 2002)
Evolving through three generations of distance education pedagogy:
Cognitive –behaviourist; social-constructivist; connectivist (Anderson & Dron, 2011)

4. Defining asynchronous distance learning
What’s distinctive about asynchronous distance learning (ADL)?
Spatial (geographic) and temporal separation between instructor and learner
No requirement of fixed place for real-time instructor / student encounters – therefore (virtual) classroom metaphor may be dispensed with…
But not pedagogically or technologically prescriptive.
ADL is commonly associated with online discussion (supporting dialogue, reflection, knowledge construction) but has been a feature of DL from postal correspondence courses onwards…..
Asynchronous learning has featured in all phases of DL pedagogy…..

5. Distance learning pedagogy (adapted from Anderson & Dron, 2011)
Pedagogic approach
Characteristics
Asynchronous tools
Cognitive behaviourism
Pre-conscious learning: information in chunks with questions/feedback
Learning units with assessment/feedback mediated through postal correspondence /
*Cognitive / constructivist
Experiential; task-oriented; self-directed
Online feedback on task mediated through tutoring tools
Social constructivist
Focus on social learning & knowledge building through discourse
web-assisted interaction through knowledge sharing & collaboration tools (discussion boards & Web 2.0 tools)
Connectivist
Learning as social participation through building networks
web-assisted interaction through production of educational content, archives, discussion transcripts.

6. Cognitive behaviourist pedagogy
Characteristics: Knowledge as modified behaviour: information in chunks with questions/feedback. Focus on individualised learning – mastery of conceptual knowledge Instructional role: Content creator and expert, controlling / sequencing student learning; offering feedback on units of learning, which test understanding Asynchronous engagement mode: from postal correspondence (1:1 written correspondence), to web-assisted instruction

7. *Cognitive /constructivist pedagogy
Characteristics: Knowledge as personally constructed meaning. Learning is experiencing and reflecting autonomously. Instructional role: Learning designer and tutor, focusing on design of individual tasks, with provision of formative assessment and dialogue as task activity proceeds – (e.g Laurillard’s conversational model) Asynchronous engagement mode: Online feedback on task - mediated through tutoring tools.

8. Social-Constructivist pedagogy
Characteristics: Acknowledging social nature of knowledge and creation in minds of individual learners, with explicit focus on two-way communication. Content secondary to learning process (Kanuka & Anderson, 1999)
Instructional role: Discussion leader & guide, facilitating task-oriented: problem-based or research driven activities(typically high teaching presence)
Learning models:
Collaborative learning: Tutor mediated discussion of concepts / tasks: ’reflection in action’
Knowledge negotiation & collaboration: problem-based or research driven (group-based tasks) – guided or self-directed...
Socially situated learning: communities of practice (Wenger, 1998)
Asynchronous engagement mode: web-assisted interaction through knowledge sharing & collaboration tools (discussion boards & Web 2.0 tools)

9. Connectivist pedagogy
Characteristics: Learning based on building networks of information, contacts, and resources that are applied to real problems (Anderson & Dron, 2011)
Instructional role: Instruction by example (modelling) – critical contributions to class and external discussion, demonstrating capacity to make connections across disciplines and context boundaries.
Learning models:
Learning as social participation – dialogic encounters with practising professionals, alumni etc., stimulated through development of artefacts / education content, showcasing of portfolios / professional work etc.
Asynchronous engagement mode: web-assisted interaction through production of educational content, archives, discussion transcripts.

10. Defining a taxonomy of online tasks (adapted from Paulsen, 1995, in Mayes & de Freitas, 2004)
Mode of learning
Task description
One-alone
Online databases, online journals, online applications, software libraries
One-to-one
Apprenticeships, collaborative assignments, interviews, role plays.
Reciprocal teaching (learning partnerships & dyads)
One-to-many
Lectures, role plays, interviews
Many-to-many
Discussion groups (supplemental; mandatory), debates & e-tivities (Salmon, 2002), case studies, brainstorming, project groups, communities of practice.

11. Research on asynchronous distance learning
What do we know about the impact of ADL methods on student learning?
Most research has focused on a mixed blend of synchronous/asynchronous learning, comparing outcomes with face-to-face classroom experience: “no significant difference”
Only limited research conducted into web-based asynchronous environments – specifically text-based conferencing (e.g. Johnson, 2008) with emergent Community of Inquiry research framework (Garrison, Anderson & Archer, 2010)
Embryonic research has been criticised for being ‘atheoretical, anecdotal or descriptive in nature’ (Carswell & Venkatesh, 2002), yet strong claims continue to be made for the contribution of asynchronous online discussion forums in the development of reflection, analysis and higher order thinking (Abawajy, 2012).

12. Asynchronous learning: reported benefits & disadvantages – Garrison (2009), Johnson (2008)
Reported Disadvantages
Encouraging in-depth, more thoughtful discussion, communication with temporally diverse students…allowing all students to respond to a topic’ (Branon & Essex, 2001)
Richer, more inclusive types of interchange (Dede & Fremer, 1999)
Promotes self-directed and regulated learning; ability to provide collaborative learning experiences at convenience of individual (Garrison, 2009)
Lack of immediate feedback. Length of time necessary for discussion to mature.
Requires more time and provides less social interaction than synchronous chat.
Absence of phatic signals / tacit information (social presence)make communication difficult – raising likelihood of misunderstanding, message ambiguity & lack of clarity. (Feenberg, 1989)
Challenging for students to monitor and manage their learning. Easy to drop off / feel isolated.

13. In summary…..
ADL as a pedagogic term is not meaningful & exclusive use of asynchronous methods is rare.
However, connectivity & asynchronicity are recognised in the literature as core properties of online learning with the capacity to support higher-order learning through reflection and collaborative learning.
But assumed benefits are challenging to deliver for educators (providing requisite levels of structure, guidance) and for learners in assuming control of monitoring & managing the cognitive/contextual aspects of their learning.
The Community of Inquiry model is insightful in this respect in helping us to address teaching, cognitive & social presence, which will shape the overall educational experience offered to learners.

14. References
Abawajy, J. (2012). Analysis of Asynchronous Online Discussion Forums for Collaborative Learning. Int. J of Education and Learning, 1 (2). Anderson, T. & Dron, J. (2011). Three Generations of Distance Education Pedagogy. Int Review of Research in Open & Distance Learning 12.3 March Carswell, A. & Venkatesh (2002). Learner outcomes in an asynchronous distance education environment. Int. J. Human-Computer Studies 56, Johnson, G. (2008). The relative learning benefits of synchronous and asynchronous text‐based discussion. British Journal of Educational Technology, 39(1), Garrison, R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2010). The first decade of the community of inquiry framework: A retrospective. The Internet and Higher Education, 13 (1-2). Garrison, R. (2009). Cognitive presence for effective asynchronous online learning: The role of reflective inquiry, self-direction and metacognition. Kanuka, H. & Anderson, T. (1999). Using constructivism in technology-mediated learning: Constructing order out of the chaos in the literature. Radical Pedagogy, 2 (1). Mayes, T. and de Freitas, S. (2004) Review of e-learning theories, frameworks and models. London: Joint Information Systems Committee. Salmon, G. (2002). E-tivities: The key to active online learning. London: Kogan Page. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.