1. CAS Zeuthen Superconducting Electron Linacs Nick Walker DESY CAS Zeuthen 15-16 Sept. 2003

2. CAS Zeuthen What’s in Store Brief history of superconducting RF Choice of frequency (SCRF for pedestrians) RF Cavity Basics (efficiency issues) Wakefields and Beam Dynamics Emittance preservation in electron linacs Will generally consider only high-power high- gradient linacs –sc e + e - linear collider –sc X-Ray FEL TESLA technology

3. CAS Zeuthen MV 16 59 69 92 310 400 75 L Lilje Status 1992: Before start of TESLA R&D (and 30 years after the start)

4. CAS Zeuthen courtesy Hasan Padamsee, Cornell S.C. RF ‘Livingston Plot’

5. CAS Zeuthen TESLA R&D 2003 9 cell EP cavities

6. CAS Zeuthen TESLA R&D

7. CAS Zeuthen EzEz z The Linear Accelerator (LINAC) c standing wave cavity: bunch sees field: E z =E 0 sin(  t+  )sin(kz) =E 0 sin(kz+  )sin(kz) c For electrons, life is easy since We will only consider relativistic electrons (v  c) we assume they have accelerated from the source by somebody else! Thus there is no longitudinal dynamics (e ± do not move long. relative to the other electrons) No space charge effects

8. CAS Zeuthen SC RF Unlike the DC case (superconducting magnets), the surface resistance of a superconducting RF cavity is not zero: Two important parameters: residual resistivity thermal conductivity

9. CAS Zeuthen SC RF Unlike the DC case (superconducting magnets), the surface resistance of a superconducting RF cavity is not zero: Two important parameters: residual resistivity R res thermal conductivity losses  surface area  f -1 R s  f 2 when R BCS > R res f > 3 GHz f TESLA = 1.3 GHz

10. CAS Zeuthen SC RF Unlike the DC case (superconducting magnets), the surface resistance of a superconducting RF cavity is not zero: Two important parameters: residual resistivity thermal conductivity Higher the better! RRR = Residual Resistivity Ratio LiHe Nb I heat flow skin depth

11. CAS Zeuthen RF Cavity Basics Figures of Merit RF powerP cav Shunt impedancer s Quality factor Q 0 : R-over-Q r s /Q 0 is a constant for a given cavity geometry independent of surface resistance

12. CAS Zeuthen Frequency Scaling normal superconducting normal superconducting normal superconducting

13. CAS Zeuthen RF Cavity Basics Fill Time From definition of Q 0 Allow ‘ringing’ cavity to decay (stored energy dissipated in walls) Combining gives eq. for U cav Assuming exponential solution (and that Q 0 and  0 are constant) Since

14. CAS Zeuthen RF Cavity Basics Fill Time Characteristic ‘charging’ time: time required to (dis)charge cavity voltage to 1/e of peak value. Often referred to as the cavity fill time. True fill time for a pulsed linac is defined slightly differently as we will see.

15. CAS Zeuthen RF Cavity Basics Some Numbers f RF = 1.3 GHzS.C. Nb (2K)Cu Q0Q0 5  10 9 2  10 4 R/QR/Q 1 k  R0R0 5  10 12  2  10 7  P cav (5 MV)cw!5 W1.25 MW P cav (25 MV)cw!125 W31 MW  fill 1.2 s 5  s

16. CAS Zeuthen RF Cavity Basics Some Numbers f RF = 1.3 GHzS.C. Nb (2K)Cu Q0Q0 5  10 9 2  10 4 R/QR/Q 1 k  R0R0 5  10 12  2  10 7  P cav (5 MV)cw!5 W1.25 MW P cav (25 MV)cw!125 W31 MW  fill 1.2 s 5  s Very high Q 0 : the great advantage of s.c. RF

17. CAS Zeuthen RF Cavity Basics Some Numbers f RF = 1.3 GHzS.C. Nb (2K)Cu Q0Q0 5  10 9 2  10 4 R/QR/Q 1 k  R0R0 5  10 12  2  10 7  P cav (5 MV)cw!5 W1.25 MW P cav (25 MV)cw!125 W31 MW  fill 1.2 s 5  s very small power loss in cavity walls all supplied power goes into accelerating the beam very high RF-to-beam transfer efficiency for AC power, must include cooling power very small power loss in cavity walls all supplied power goes into accelerating the beam very high RF-to-beam transfer efficiency for AC power, must include cooling power

18. CAS Zeuthen RF Cavity Basics Some Numbers f RF = 1.3 GHzS.C. Nb (2K)Cu Q0Q0 5  10 9 2  10 4 R/QR/Q 1 k  R0R0 5  10 12  2  10 7  P cav (5 MV)cw!5 W1.25 MW P cav (25 MV)cw!125 W31 MW  fill 1.2 s 5  s for high-energy higher gradient linacs (X-FEL, LC), cw operation not an option due to load on cryogenics pulsed operation generally required numbers now represent peak power P cav = P pk ×duty cycle (Cu linacs generally use very short pulses!) for high-energy higher gradient linacs (X-FEL, LC), cw operation not an option due to load on cryogenics pulsed operation generally required numbers now represent peak power P cav = P pk ×duty cycle (Cu linacs generally use very short pulses!)

19. CAS Zeuthen Cryogenic Power Requirements Basic Thermodynamics: Carnot Efficiency (T cav = 2.2K) System efficiency typically 0.2-0.3 (latter for large systems) Thus total cooling efficiency is 0.14-0.2% Note: this represents dynamic load, and depends on Q 0 and V Static load must also be included (i.e. load at V = 0).

20. CAS Zeuthen RF Cavity Basics Power Coupling calculated ‘fill time’ was 1.2 seconds! this is time needed for field to decay to V/e for a closed cavity (i.e. only power loss to s.c. walls).

21. CAS Zeuthen RF Cavity Basics Power Coupling calculated ‘fill time’ was 1.2 seconds! this is time needed for field to decay to V/e for a closed cavity (i.e. only power loss to s.c. walls). however, we need a ‘hole’ (coupler) in the cavity to get the power in, and

22. CAS Zeuthen RF Cavity Basics Power Coupling calculated ‘fill time’ was 1.2 seconds! this is time needed for field to decay to V/e for a closed cavity (i.e. only power loss to s.c. walls). however, we need a ‘hole’ (coupler) in the cavity to get the power in, and this hole allows the energy in the cavity to leak out!

23. CAS Zeuthen RF Cavity Basics Generator (Klystron) matched load cavity coupler circulator Z 0 = characteristic impedance of transmission line (waveguide)

24. CAS Zeuthen RF Cavity Basics Generator (Klystron) Klystron power P for sees matched impedance Z 0 Reflected power P ref from coupler/cavity is dumped in load Conservation of energy: impedance mismatch

25. CAS Zeuthen Equivalent Circuit Generator (Klystron) cavitycoupler

26. CAS Zeuthen Equivalent Circuit Only consider on resonance:

27. CAS Zeuthen Equivalent Circuit Only consider on resonance: We can transform the matched load impedance Z 0 into the cavity circuit.

28. CAS Zeuthen Equivalent Circuit coupling constant: define external Q:

29. CAS Zeuthen Reflected and Transmitted RF Power reflection coefficient (seen from generator) : from energy conservation:

30. CAS Zeuthen Transient Behaviour steady state cavity voltage: steady-state result! think in terms of (travelling) microwaves: remember: from before:

31. CAS Zeuthen Reflected Transient Power time-dependent reflection coefficient

32. CAS Zeuthen Reflected Transient Power after RF turned off

33. CAS Zeuthen RF On note: No beam!

34. CAS Zeuthen Reflected Power in Pulsed Operation Example of square RF pulse with critically coupledunder coupledover coupled

35. CAS Zeuthen Accelerating Electrons Assume bunches are very short model ‘current’ as a series of  functions: Fourier component at  0 is 2I 0 assume ‘on-crest’ acceleration (i.e. I b is in-phase with V cav ) t

36. CAS Zeuthen Accelerating Electrons consider first steady state what’s I g ?

37. CAS Zeuthen Accelerating Electrons Consider power in cavity load R with I b =0: From equivalent circuit model (with I b =0): NB: I g is actually twice the true generator current steady state!

38. CAS Zeuthen Accelerating Electrons substituting for I g : introducing beam loading parameter

39. CAS Zeuthen Accelerating Electrons Now let’s calculate the RF  beam efficiency power fed to beam: hence: reflected power:

40. CAS Zeuthen Accelerating Electrons Note that if beam is off (K=0) For zero-beam loading case, we needed  = 1 for maximum power transfer (i.e. P ref = 0) Now we require Hence for a fixed coupler (  ), zero reflection only achieved at one specific beam current. previous result

41. CAS Zeuthen A Useful Expression for  efficiency: optimum voltage: can show where

42. CAS Zeuthen Example: TESLA beam current: cavity parameters (at T = 2K): For optimal efficiency, P ref = 0: cw! From previous results:

43. CAS Zeuthen Unloaded Voltage matched condition: for hence:

44. CAS Zeuthen Pulsed Operation Allow cavity to charge for t fill such that For TESLA example: From previous discussions:

45. CAS Zeuthen Pulse Operation generator voltage cavity voltage beam induced voltage t/st/s beam on reflected power: After t fill, beam is introduced exponentials cancel and beam sees constant accelerating voltage V acc = 25 MV Power is reflected before and after pulse RF on

46. CAS Zeuthen Pulsed Efficiency total efficiency must include t fill : for TESLA

47. CAS Zeuthen Quick Summary cw efficiency for s.c. cavity: efficiency for pulsed linac: fill time: Increase efficiency (reduce fill time): go to high I 0 for given V acc longer bunch trains (t beam ) some other constraints: cyrogenic load modulator/klystron

48. CAS Zeuthen Lorentz-Force Detuning In high gradient structures, E and B fields exert stress on the cavity, causing it to deform. detuning of cavity As a result: cavity off resonance by relative amount  =  /  0 equivalent circuit is now complex voltage phase shift wrt generator (and beam) by power is reflected require = few Hz for TESLA For TESLA 9 cell at 25 MV,  f ~ 900 Hz !! (loaded BW ~500Hz) [note: causes transient behaviour during RF pulse]

49. CAS Zeuthen Lorentz Force Detuning cont. recent tests on TESLA high-gradient cavity

50. CAS Zeuthen Lorentz Force Detuning cont. Three fixes: mechanically stiffen cavity feed-forwarded (increase RF power during pulse) fast piezo tuners + feedback

51. CAS Zeuthen Lorentz Force Detuning cont. Three fixes: mechanically stiffen cavity feed-forwarded (increase RF power during pulse) fast piezo tuners + feedback stiffening ring reduces effect by ~1/2

52. CAS Zeuthen Lorentz Force Detuning cont. Three fixes: mechanically stiffen cavity feed-forwarded (increase RF power during pulse) fast piezo tuners + feedback Low Level RF (LLRF) compensates. Mostly feedforward (behaviour is repetitive) For TESLA, 1 klystron drives 36 cavities, thus ‘vector sum’ is corrected.

53. CAS Zeuthen Lorentz Force Detuning cont. Three fixes: mechanically stiffen cavity feed-forwarded (increase RF power during pulse) fast piezo tuners + feedback

54. CAS Zeuthen Lorentz Force Detuning cont. Three fixes: mechanically stiffen cavity feed-forwarded (increase RF power during pulse) fast piezo tuners + feedback recent tests on TESLA high-gradient cavity

55. CAS Zeuthen Wakefields and Beam Dynamics bunches traversing cavities generate many RF modes. Excitation of fundamental (  0 ) mode we have already discussed (beam loading) higher-order (higher-frequency) modes (HOMs) can act back on the beam and adversely affect it. Separate into two time (frequency) domains: –long-range, bunch-to-bunch –short-range, single bunch effects (head-tail effects)

56. CAS Zeuthen Wakefields: the (other) SC RF Advantage the strength of the wakefield potential (W) is a strong function of the iris aperture a. Shunt impedance (r s ) is also a function of a. To increase efficiency, Cu cavities tend to move towards smaller irises (higher r s ). For S.C. cavities, since r s is extremely high anyway, we can make a larger without loosing efficiency. significantly smaller wakefields

57. CAS Zeuthen Long Range Wakefields Bunch ‘current’ generates wake that decelerates trailing bunches. Bunch current generates transverse deflecting modes when bunches are not on cavity axis Fields build up resonantly: latter bunches are kicked transversely  multi- and single-bunch beam break-up (MBBU, SBBU) wakefield is the time-domain description of impedance

58. CAS Zeuthen Transverse HOMs wake is sum over modes: k n is the loss parameter (units V/pC/m 2 ) for the n th mode Transverse kick of j th bunch after traversing one cavity: where y i, q i, and E i, are the offset wrt the cavity axis, the charge and the energy of the i th bunch respectively.

59. CAS Zeuthen Detuning abs. wake (V/pC/m) time (ns) no detuning HOMs cane be randomly detuned by a small amount. Over several cavities, wake ‘decoheres’. with detuning Effect of random 0.1% detuning (averaged over 36 cavities). next bunch Still require HOM dampers

60. CAS Zeuthen Effect of Emittance vertical beam offset along bunch train (n b = 2920) Multibunch emittance growth for cavities with 500  m RMS misalignment

61. CAS Zeuthen Single Bunch Effects Completely analogous to low-range wakes wake over a single bunch causality (relativistic bunch): head of bunch affects the tail Again must consider –longitudinal:effects energy spread along bunch –transverse:the emittance killer! For short-range wakes, tend to consider wake potentials (Greens functions) rather than ‘modes

62. CAS Zeuthen Longitudinal Wake Consider the TESLA wake potential wake over bunch given by convolution: V/pC/m z/zz/z headtail average energy loss: (  (z) = long. charge dist.) For TESLA LC:

63. CAS Zeuthen RMS Energy Spread z/zz/z rms  E/E (ppm)  E/E (ppm) RF wake+RF  (deg) accelerating field along bunch: Minimum energy spread along bunch achieved when bunch rides ahead of crest on RF. Negative slope of RF compensates wakefield. For TESLA LC, minimum at about  ~ +6º

64. CAS Zeuthen RMS Energy Spread

65. CAS Zeuthen Transverse Single-Bunch Wakes When bunch is offset wrt cavity axis, transverse (dipole) wake is excited. V/pC/m 2 z/zz/z head tail ‘kick’ along bunch: Note: y(s; z) describes a free betatron oscillation along linac (FODO) lattice (as a function of s)

66. CAS Zeuthen 2 particle model Effect of coherent betatron oscillation - head resonantly drives the tail head eom (Hill’s equation): tail eom: head tail solution: resonantly driven oscillator

67. CAS Zeuthen BNS Damping If both macroparticles have an initial offset y 0 then particle 1 undergoes a sinusoidal oscillation, y 1 =y 0 cos(k β s). What happens to particle 2? Qualitatively: an additional oscillation out-of-phase with the betatron term which grows monotonically with s. How do we beat it? Higher beam energy, stronger focusing, lower charge, shorter bunches, or a damping technique recommended by Balakin, Novokhatski, and Smirnov (BNS Damping) curtesy: P. Tenenbaum (SLAC)

68. CAS Zeuthen BNS Damping Imagine that the two macroparticles have different betatron frequencies, represented by different focusing constants k β1 and k β2 The second particle now acts like an undamped oscillator driven off its resonant frequency by the wakefield of the first. The difference in trajectory between the two macroparticles is given by: curtesy: P. Tenenbaum (SLAC)

69. CAS Zeuthen BNS Damping The wakefield can be locally cancelled (ie, cancelled at all points down the linac) if: This condition is often known as “autophasing.” It can be achieved by introducing an energy difference between the head and tail of the bunch. When the requirements of discrete focusing (ie, FODO lattices) are included, the autophasing RMS energy spread is given by: curtesy: P. Tenenbaum (SLAC)

70. CAS Zeuthen Wakefields (alignment tolerances)

71. CAS Zeuthen Cavity Misalignments

72. CAS Zeuthen Wakefields and Beam Dynamics The preservation of (RMS) Emittance! Quadrupole Alignment Structure Alignment Wakefields Dispersion control of Transverse Longitudinal E/EE/E beam loading Single-bunch

73. CAS Zeuthen Emittance tuning in the Linac DR produces tiny vertical emittances (  y ~ 20nm) LINAC must preserve this emittance! –strong wakefields (structure misalignment) –dispersion effects (quadrupole misalignment) Tolerances too tight to be achieved by surveyor during installation  Need beam-based alignment mma! Consider linear collider parameters:

74. CAS Zeuthen YjYj YiYi KiKi yjyj g ij Basics (linear optics) linear system: just superimpose oscillations caused by quad kicks. thin-lens quad approximation:  y’=  KY

75. CAS Zeuthen Original Equation Defining Response Matrix Q : Hence beam offset becomes Introduce matrix notation G is lower diagonal:

76. CAS Zeuthen Dispersive Emittance Growth Consider effects of finite energy spread in beam  RMS chromatic response matrix: lattice chromaticity dispersive kicks dispersive orbit:

77. CAS Zeuthen What do we measure? BPM readings contain additional errors: b offset static offsets of monitors wrt quad centres b noise one-shot measurement noise (resolution  RES ) fixed from shot to shot random (can be averaged to zero) launch condition In principle: all BBA algorithms deal with b offset

78. CAS Zeuthen Scenario 1: Quad offsets, but BPMs aligned Assuming: - a BPM adjacent to each quad - a ‘steerer’ at each quad simply apply one to one steering to orbit steerer quad mover dipole corrector

79. CAS Zeuthen Scenario 2: Quads aligned, BPMs offset one-to-one correction BAD! Resulting orbit not Dispersion Free  emittance growth Need to find a steering algorithm which effectively puts BPMs on (some) reference line real world scenario: some mix of scenarios 1 and 2

80. CAS Zeuthen BBA Dispersion Free Steering (DFS) –Find a set of steerer settings which minimise the dispersive orbit –in practise, find solution that minimises difference orbit when ‘energy’ is changed –Energy change: true energy change (adjust linac phase) scale quadrupole strengths Ballistic Alignment –Turn off accelerator components in a given section, and use ‘ballistic beam’ to define reference line –measured BPM orbit immediately gives b offset wrt to this line

81. CAS Zeuthen DFS Problem: Solution (trivial): Note: taking difference orbit  y removes b offset Unfortunately, not that easy because of noise sources:

82. CAS Zeuthen DFS example 300  m random quadrupole errors 20%  E/E No BPM noise No beam jitter mm mm

83. CAS Zeuthen DFS example Simple solve original quad errors fitter quad errors In the absence of errors, works exactly Resulting orbit is flat  Dispersion Free (perfect BBA) Now add 1  m random BPM noise to measured difference orbit

84. CAS Zeuthen DFS example Simple solve original quad errors fitter quad errors Fit is ill-conditioned!

85. CAS Zeuthen DFS example mm mm Solution is still Dispersion Free but several mm off axis!

86. CAS Zeuthen DFS: Problems Fit is ill-conditioned –with BPM noise DF orbits have very large unrealistic amplitudes. –Need to constrain the absolute orbit minimise Sensitive to initial launch conditions (steering, beam jitter) –need to be fitted out or averaged away

87. CAS Zeuthen DFS example Minimise original quad errors fitter quad errors absolute orbit now constrained remember  res = 1  m  offset = 300  m

88. CAS Zeuthen DFS example mm mm Solutions much better behaved! ! Wakefields ! Orbit not quite Dispersion Free, but very close

89. CAS Zeuthen DFS practicalities Need to align linac in sections (bins), generally overlapping. Changing energy by 20% –quad scaling: only measures dispersive kicks from quads. Other sources ignored (not measured) –Changing energy upstream of section using RF better, but beware of RF steering (see initial launch) –dealing with energy mismatched beam may cause problems in practise (apertures) Initial launch conditions still a problem –coherent  -oscillation looks like dispersion to algorithm. –can be random jitter, or RF steering when energy is changed. –need good resolution BPMs to fit out the initial conditions. Sensitive to model errors (M)

90. CAS Zeuthen Ballistic Alignment Turn of all components in section to be aligned [magnets, and RF] use ‘ballistic beam’ to define straight reference line (BPM offsets) Linearly adjust BPM readings to arbitrarily zero last BPM restore components, steer beam to adjusted ballistic line 62

91. CAS Zeuthen Ballistic Alignment 62

92. CAS Zeuthen Ballistic Alignment: Problems Controlling the downstream beam during the ballistic measurement –large beta-beat –large coherent oscillation Need to maintain energy match –scale downstream lattice while RF in ballistic section is off use feedback to keep downstream orbit under control

93. CAS Zeuthen TESLA LLRF