1. END-FOCUS/END-WEIGHT
PRINCIPLES:
END-FOCUS/END-WEIGHT

2. The information structure of a sentence has two parts:
one for given information;
one for new information.
(old information is normally presented before new information)

3. The end and beginning of a clause are usually points of focus, but the complex structure and “heavier” information part is normally placed in final position.

4. Information-flow principle
Related to the normal ordering of information in English discourse, i.e. moving from given to new information.
The following question and two possible replies.
Q: When will we come back?
- A) We’ll come back next week.
- B) Next week we’ll come back.
In the two replies, the given information is marked in blue and new information is underlined.

5. Which reply will you choose? Why?
A) is better than B)
The given-new order of information can contribute to the cohesion of a text, because the given information at the beginning links the sentence to the previous discourse while the new information is usually taken up in the continuing discourse.
The given-new order also helps the addressee to understand.

6. PRINCIPLES OF END-FOCUS AND END-WEIGHT
A clause normally has at least one point of focus, which typically falls upon the end of the clause.

7. PRINCIPLES OF END-FOCUS AND END-WEIGHT
End-weight principle
The tendency to preserve the final position for the more complex parts of a clause or sentence, i.e., the more “weighty” part(s) of a sentence should be placed towards the end. Otherwise, the sentence may sound awkward. The weight of an element can be defined in terms of length (e.g. Number of syllables) or in terms of grammatical complexity (number of modifiers).

8. COMPARE THE PAIR OF EXAMPLES
A)It is important that you contact them to make a housing application and let them know of your needs.
B) That you contact them to make a housing application and let them know of your needs is important.
Which sentence is more difficult to process? Why?
Sentence B) is more difficult
It is structurally unbalanced, and readers have to keep a lot in memory before they reach the end of the sentence

9. Existential there
Existential constructions can help to avoid unbalanced sentence structure
A) There are many people who believe sincerely that you can train children for life without resorting to punishment.
B) Many people who believe sincerely that you can train children for life without resorting to punishment exist.
Which option do you prefer? Why?
A) is better than B)
Sentence balance, end-focus

10. Exercise: Identify given and new information
The micrometer
A micrometer is an instrument which is used for measuring small distances precisely.
It can measure with a precision of 0.01 mm.
A micrometer consists of a steel frame in the shape of a semi-circle.
Attached to one end of this semi-circular frame is a small anvil.
The other end of the frame extends outwards.
A piece of metal in the shape of a cylinder fits on this extension.
The cylindrical part is called the barrel or sleeve.
Inside the barrel is a screw-thread.

11. Sample analysis

12. Further readings
Alonso, I. (2003) Improving text flow in ESL learner Compositions. The Internet TESL Journal 9/2. URL:
Biber, D., Conrad, S. and Leech, G. (2002) Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English. London: Longman.
Biber, D., Johansson, S., Leech, G., Conrad, S. and Finegan, E. (1999) Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. London: Longman.
Birner, B. and Ward, G. (1998) Information Status and Noncanonical Word Order in English. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Jennifer A., Losongc, A., Wasow, T. and Ginstrom, R. (2000) Heaviness vs. Newness: The Effects of Structural Complexity and Discourse Status on Constituent Ordering. Language 76/1:
Lambrecht, K. (1994) Information Structure and Sentence Form. London: CUP
Nwogu, K. (1995) Structuring scientific discourse. English Teaching Forum. 33/4: URL:
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. (1985) A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman.