1. Access, Equity and Capacity in Asia Pacific Higher Education IFE 2020 Leadership Institute February 23-March 6, 2009 John Hawkins and Deane Neubauer

2. Exploring Capacity Common understandings of capacityCommon understandings of capacity Structural problems with measurementStructural problems with measurement Implications for linking capacity with access and equity considerationsImplications for linking capacity with access and equity considerations The importance of measurement for planning and quality assuranceThe importance of measurement for planning and quality assurance All these yield the “dilemma of measuring capacity”All these yield the “dilemma of measuring capacity” A new capacity paradigmA new capacity paradigm

3. Conventional Understandings of Capacity Universal law of higher education: the more capacity an institution has, the better it is.Universal law of higher education: the more capacity an institution has, the better it is. More is better!More is better! The presumption that capacity is a necessary precondition of accessThe presumption that capacity is a necessary precondition of access The further presumption that capacity is invariably a precondition of qualityThe further presumption that capacity is invariably a precondition of quality

4. Some Further Dimensions of Capacity Measuring capacity not very sensible without knowing its purposesMeasuring capacity not very sensible without knowing its purposes Capacity is always capacity for something and exists within politicized contextsCapacity is always capacity for something and exists within politicized contexts For example capacity and access are always contested terrain--particular interest groups will define access in terms of their specific needs.For example capacity and access are always contested terrain--particular interest groups will define access in terms of their specific needs. E.g. HE administrators define and implicitly measure capacity differently than legislators or governmental administratorsE.g. HE administrators define and implicitly measure capacity differently than legislators or governmental administrators

5. Conceptualizing Capacity Measurement Understandings of capacity co-vary with structural conditions, including demography. Under-capacity, Optimal-capacity, and Over- capacityUnderstandings of capacity co-vary with structural conditions, including demography. Under-capacity, Optimal-capacity, and Over- capacity These in turn yield notions of “appropriate capacity” for a “given situation”These in turn yield notions of “appropriate capacity” for a “given situation” For HEI’s two results occur: (a) what are they meant to do in response to such situations (e.g. expand, contract, differentiate, change mission) and (b) what resource streams are available for the determination of direction?For HEI’s two results occur: (a) what are they meant to do in response to such situations (e.g. expand, contract, differentiate, change mission) and (b) what resource streams are available for the determination of direction?

6. The Dilemma of Situational Determination Because capacity is always situationally determined,Because capacity is always situationally determined, its effective measure is always (literally!) a moving target.its effective measure is always (literally!) a moving target. What is acceptable capacity within one set of access aspirations will be inadequate in anotherWhat is acceptable capacity within one set of access aspirations will be inadequate in another Because of this situational uncertainly, HEI’s, accreditation and QA bodies tend to develop measures of capacity based on inputs; institutions and governments seek to increase quality, achieve access and implement equity by managing inputsBecause of this situational uncertainly, HEI’s, accreditation and QA bodies tend to develop measures of capacity based on inputs; institutions and governments seek to increase quality, achieve access and implement equity by managing inputs

7. Making Progress on Capacity Understandings Ideally we want an understanding of capacity which is dynamicIdeally we want an understanding of capacity which is dynamic That is: our understanding of effective capacity can change with respect to:That is: our understanding of effective capacity can change with respect to: The institutional purposes to which it is meant to refer, e.g., alignment with access, teaching institutions, research institutions, undergraduate, graduate, professional education, etc.The institutional purposes to which it is meant to refer, e.g., alignment with access, teaching institutions, research institutions, undergraduate, graduate, professional education, etc. And, the functional components of institutions within which it is contained, e.g., teaching, research, service, administrative efficiency, etc.And, the functional components of institutions within which it is contained, e.g., teaching, research, service, administrative efficiency, etc.

8. Toward a New Capacity Paradigm A new paradigm would combine the sense of a dynamic notion of capacity withA new paradigm would combine the sense of a dynamic notion of capacity with An understanding of the relative, and differentiated nature of institutional effectivenessAn understanding of the relative, and differentiated nature of institutional effectiveness This was the task the Western Association of Schools and Colleges set for itself in developing a new model of US accreditation in 2000.This was the task the Western Association of Schools and Colleges set for itself in developing a new model of US accreditation in 2000.

9. The Paradigmatic Breakthrough From inputs to a linkage between inputs and outputsFrom inputs to a linkage between inputs and outputs The idea of “core commitments”: institutional capacity and an institution’s concept of educational effectivenessThe idea of “core commitments”: institutional capacity and an institution’s concept of educational effectiveness Central focus on qualityCentral focus on quality From stipulation to inquiryFrom stipulation to inquiry

10. Variations on Equity and Access in Asian HE BackgroundBackground Assumption: nations develop=more access to HEAssumption: nations develop=more access to HE Post WWII optimistic vision: increased access to HE meant reduction in inequalitiesPost WWII optimistic vision: increased access to HE meant reduction in inequalities 1970’s cynicism sets in: gap between rich and poor continued to increase1970’s cynicism sets in: gap between rich and poor continued to increase Failure to account for internal and external structural contradictionsFailure to account for internal and external structural contradictions

11. TYPES OF EQUITY & Equality EQUALITY OF ACCESSEQUALITY OF ACCESS EQUALITY OF SURVIVALEQUALITY OF SURVIVAL EQUALITY OF OUTPUTEQUALITY OF OUTPUT EQUALITY OF OUTCOMEEQUALITY OF OUTCOME

12. Income Related Equity INCOME DISTRIBUTION AND EQUALITYINCOME DISTRIBUTION AND EQUALITY CAPABILITY POVERTYCAPABILITY POVERTY FINANCIAL BURDENS ON POOR: FEES AND HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURESFINANCIAL BURDENS ON POOR: FEES AND HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURES

13. Region Related Equity REGIONAL URBAN-RURAL DISPARITIESREGIONAL URBAN-RURAL DISPARITIES REGIONAL DISPARITY WITHIN COUNTRIESREGIONAL DISPARITY WITHIN COUNTRIES REASONS FOR REGIONAL DISPARITIESREASONS FOR REGIONAL DISPARITIES URBAN POVERTYURBAN POVERTY

14. Socio-Cultural Related Equity ACCESS AND EQUITY IN EDUCATION FOR ETHNIC MINORITIESACCESS AND EQUITY IN EDUCATION FOR ETHNIC MINORITIES FOR LINGUISTIC GROUPSFOR LINGUISTIC GROUPS FOR RELIGIOUS GROUPSFOR RELIGIOUS GROUPS FROM A GENDER PERSPECTIVEFROM A GENDER PERSPECTIVE OVERALL ISSUE OF DISPARATE VALUES, BELIEFS, AND AWARENESSOVERALL ISSUE OF DISPARATE VALUES, BELIEFS, AND AWARENESS CASTECASTE

15. Structural Responses Tracking mechanismsTracking mechanisms Public-private debate, Neoliberalism as policyPublic-private debate, Neoliberalism as policy Shadow educational systems one outcome: juku, buxiban, hakwonShadow educational systems one outcome: juku, buxiban, hakwon

16. Some Regional Cases: Cost Issues Who pays, how much, mechanisms for financing HE? “Cost-sharing” now present in most systems But in a context of financial austerity, declining faculty morale, student unrest

17. SUMMARY Low Cost; State Subsidized: Singapore, Indonesia, VietnamLow Cost; State Subsidized: Singapore, Indonesia, Vietnam High Cost; Low State Support: Korea, PhilippinesHigh Cost; Low State Support: Korea, Philippines Mid-range Cost; Some State Support: Taiwan, Japan, ChinaMid-range Cost; Some State Support: Taiwan, Japan, China Region-wide: growing tuition, rising costs; privatization; yet, cost-sharing schemes by StateRegion-wide: growing tuition, rising costs; privatization; yet, cost-sharing schemes by State

18. Responses DevelopmentDevelopment PhilanthropyPhilanthropy Alumni developmentAlumni development Private sector partnershipsPrivate sector partnerships More transparency for families and studentsMore transparency for families and students Will the access gap widen or narrow?Will the access gap widen or narrow?