1. Chapter 5 Updated January 2007 Panko’s Business Data Networks and Telecommunications, 6th edition Copyright 2007 Prentice-Hall May only be used by adopters of the book Wireless LANs (WLANs)

2. 5-2 Orientation LANs Are Governed by Layer 1 and 2 Standards –So they are governed by OSI Standards Wired LAN Standards –Chapter 3 (UTP and optical fiber transmission) –Chapter 4 (Ethernet 802.3 Layer 1 and 2 standards) Chapter 5 –Wireless LAN (WLAN) Standards –Physical layer wireless transmission –Wireless data link layer operation –Management

3. 5-3 Figure 5-1: Local Wireless Technologies, Continued 802.11 –The dominant WLAN technology today –Standardized by the 802.11 Working Group 802.11

4. 5-4 Figure 5-2: Wireless LAN (WLAN) Access Point Server Internet Router Ethernet Switch Laptop Mobile Client Wireless Access Point Large Wired Ethernet LAN UTP Radio Transmission Wireless access point (WAP) bridges wireless stations to resources on wired LAN—servers and routers for Internet access Communication

5. 5-5 Figure 5-3: Access Router with Wireless Access Point and Wireless NICs PC Card WNIC for a Notebook Computer Internal WNIC For Desktop PC USB WNIC Access Router with Access Point

6. 5-6 Figure 5-1: Local Wireless Technologies, Continued 802.11 Wireless LANs –Today, mostly speeds of tens of megabits per second with distances of 30 to 100 meters or more Can serve many users in a home or office –Increasingly, 100 Mbps to 600 Mbps with 802.11n –Organizations can provide coverage throughout a building or a university campus by installing many access points

7. 5-7 Figure 5-1: Local Wireless Technologies, Continued Other Local Wireless Technologies –Mesh networking: multiple access points can route frames to their destination (Figure 5-4) without using a wired LAN –Being standardized at 802.11s

8. Radio Propagation

9. 5-9 Figure 5-5: Frequency Measurement Frequency –Light waves are measured in wavelengths (Ch. 3) –Radio waves are measured in terms of frequency –Measured in hertz (Hz)—the number of complete cycles per second 1 Second Two cycles in 1 second, so frequency is two Hertz (Hz).

10. 5-10 Figure 5-5: Frequency Measurement, Continued Measuring Frequencies –Frequency measures increases by factors of 1,000 (not 1,024) –Kilohertz (kHz) [Note the lower-case k] –Megahertz (MHz) –Gigahertz (GHz)

11. 5-11 Figure 5-6: Omnidirectional and Dish Antennas Omnidirectional Antenna Spread signals in all directions Rapid signal attenuation ----- No need to point at receiver Good for mobile subscribers Dish Antenna Focuses signals in a narrow range Signals can be sent over long distances ----- Must point at the sender Good for fixed subscribers

12. 5-12 Figure 5-7: Wireless Propagation Problems 2. Attenuation: signal gets weaker with distance 3. Shadow Zone (Dead Spot) 1. Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) from Other stations, Microwave ovens, etc. Blocking Object

13. 5-13 Figure 5-7: Wireless Propagation Problems Reflected Signal Laptop Direct Signal 4. Multipath Interference Direct and reflected signals may interfere Blocking Object

14. 5-14 Inverse Square Law Attenuation Inverse square law attenuation –To compare relative power at two distances Divide the longer distance by the shorter distance Square the result; this is the relative power ratio –Examples 100 mW (milliwatts) at 10 meters At 20 meters, 100 / (20/10) 2 = 100 mW / 4 = 25 mW At 30 meters, 100 / (30/10) 2 = 100 mW / 9 = 11 mW –Much faster attenuation than UTP or fiber

15. 5-15 Frequently-Depended Propagation Problem Some Problems are Frequency-Dependent –Higher-frequency signals attenuate faster Absorbed more rapidly by water in the air –Higher-frequency signals blocked more by obstacles At lower frequencies, signal refract (bend) around obstacles like an ocean wave hitting a buoy At higher frequencies, signals do not refract; leave a complete shadow behind obstacles

16. 5-16 Figure 5-8: The Frequency Spectrum, Service Bands, and Channels Channel 5, Signal A Channel 1, Signal E Channel 2, No Signal Channel 3, Signal B Channel 4, Signal D 0 Hz 2. Service Band (FM Radio, Cellular Telephony, etc.) 1. Frequency Spectrum (0 Hz to Infinity) 3. Multiple Channels within a Service Band; each Channel carries a different signal 4. Signals in different channels do not interfere with one another

17. 5-17 Figure 5-9: Channel Bandwidth and Transmission Speed (Study Figure) Signal Bandwidth –Chapter 3 discussed a wave operating at a single frequency –However, most signals are spread over a range of frequencies –The higher the speed, the greater the spread of frequencies Amplitude Frequency Signal

18. 5-18 Figure 5-9: Channel Bandwidth and Transmission Speed (Study Figure) Channel Bandwidth –Higher-speed signals need wider-bandwidth channels –Channel bandwidth is the highest frequency in a channel minus the lowest frequency –An 88.0 MHz to 88.2 MHz channel has a bandwidth of 0.2 MHz (200 kHz) 88.0 MHz88.2 MHz Bandwidth = 0.2 MHz = 200 kHz Amplitude Frequency

19. 5-19 Figure 5-9: Channel Bandwidth and Transmission Speed (Study Figure) Shannon Equation –Specifies the connection between channel bandwidth and the channel’s maximum signal transmission speed –C = B [ Log 2 (1+S/N) ] C = Maximum possible transmission speed in the channel (bps) B = Bandwidth (Hz) S/N = Signal-to-Noise Ratio –Measured as a ratio –If given in dB, must convert to ratio

20. 5-20 Figure 5-9: Channel Bandwidth and Transmission Speed (Study Figure) Shannon Equation –C = B [ Log2 (1+S/N) ] Note that doubling the bandwidth doubles the maximum possible transmission speed Increasing the bandwidth by X increases the maximum possible speed by X –Wide bandwidth is the key to fast transmission –Increasing S/N helps slightly but usually cannot be done to any significant extent

21. 5-21 Figure 5-9: Channel Bandwidth and Transmission Speed (Study Figure) Broadband and Narrowband Channels –Broadband means wide channel bandwidth and therefore high speed –Narrowband means narrow channel bandwidth and therefore low speed –Narrowband is below 200 kbps –Broadband is above 200 kbps

22. 5-22 Figure 5-9: Channel Bandwidth and Transmission Speed (Study Figure) Channel Bandwidth and Spectrum Scarcity –Why not make all channels broadband? –There is only a limited amount of spectrum at desirable frequencies –Making each channel broader than needed would mean having fewer channels or widening the service band –Service band design requires tradeoffs between speed requirements, channel bandwidth, and service band size

23. 5-23 Figure 5-9: Channel Bandwidth and Transmission Speed (Study Figure) The Golden Zone –Most organizational radio technologies operate in the golden zone in the high megahertz to low gigahertz range –At higher frequencies, propagation problems are severe –At lower frequencies, there is not enough total bandwidth Golden Zone Higher Frequency Lower Frequency

24. Spread Spectrum Transmission

25. 5-25 Figure 5-11: Spread Spectrum Transmission (Study Figure) Unlicensed Bands –WLANs operate in unlicensed service bands You do not need a license to have or move your stations –Two unlicensed bands are widely used: the 2.4 GHz band and the 5 GHz band 5 GHz has worse propagation characteristics 2.4 GHz has fewer available channels

26. 5-26 Figure 5-11: Spread Spectrum Transmission, Continued Spread Spectrum Transmission –You are REQUIRED BY LAW to use spread spectrum transmission in unlicensed bands Spread spectrum transmission uses much larger channels than transmission speed requires Spread spectrum transmission is required to reduce propagation problems at high frequencies Especially multipath interference –Spread spectrum transmission is NOT used for security in WLANs This surprises many people

27. 5-27 Figure 5-11: Spread Spectrum Transmission, Continued There are Several Spread Spectrum Transmission Methods (Figure 5-13) –Older Techniques Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) up to 4 Mbps (The book says 2 Mbps) Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) up to 11 Mbps –Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) is used at 54 Mbps –MIMO for speeds of 100 Mbps to 600 Mbps Not Used in 802.11

28. 5-28 Figure 5-13: Spread Spectrum Transmission Methods Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) Signal only uses its normal bandwidth, but it jumps around within a much wider channel If there are propagation problems at specific frequencies, most of the transmission will still get through Limited to low speeds of about 4 Mbps; used by Bluetooth (later) Only used in Old 802.11 systems And Bluetooth

29. 5-29 Figure 5-13: Spread Spectrum Transmission Methods Wideband but Low-Intensity Signal Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) Signal is spread over the entire bandwidth of the wideband channel The power per hertz at any frequency is very low Interference will harm some of the signal, but most of the signal will still get through and will be readable Used in 802.11b (11 Mbps), which is discussed later Only used in old 802.11 networks

30. 5-30 Figure 5-13: Spread Spectrum Transmission Methods Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) Subcarrier 1 Subcarrier 3 Subcarrier 2 OFDM divides the broadband channel into subcarriers Sends part of the signal in each subcarrier The subcarrier transmissions are redundant so that if some carriers are lost, the entire signal still gets through Used in 802.11a and 802.11g at 54 Mbps (later)

31. 5-31 Figure 5-20: Multiple Input/Multiple Output (MIMO) Transmission Two or more signals can be sent at the same time in the same channel. The receiver uses multipath time differences to distinguish between them. This is an example of smart radio technology.

32. 802.11 WLAN Operation

33. 5-33 Figure 5-14: Typical 802.11 WLAN Operation Server Ethernet Switch Laptop WAP Large Wired LAN Client PC UTP Radio Transmission 802.11 Frame802.3 Frame Wireless access points (WAPs) bridge the networks (translate between the 802.11 wireless frame and the Ethernet 802.3 frame used within the LAN)

34. 5-34 Figure 5-14: Typical 802.11 WLAN Operation, Continued Server Ethernet Switch Laptop WAP A Large Wired LAN Client PC WAP B UTP Handoff or Roaming (if mobile computer moves to another access point, it switches service to that access point) 802.11 Frame 802.3 Frame

35. 5-35 Figure 5-15: Stations and Access Points Transmit in a Single Channel Collision if 2 Devices send Simultaneously

36. 5-36 Media Access Control Only one station or the access point can transmit at a time To control access (transmission), two methods can be used –CSMA/CA+ACK (mandatory) –RTS/CTS (optional unless 802.11b and g stations share an 802.11g access point) Box

37. 5-37 Figure 5-16: CSMA/CA+ACK in 802.11 Wireless LANs CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) CSMA –Sender Always Listens for Traffic Carrier is the signal; sense is to listen –If there is traffic, the sender waits –If there is no traffic … If the time since the last transmission is more than a critical value, the station may send immediately Box

38. 5-38 Figure 5-16: CSMA/CA+ACK in 802.11 Wireless LANs CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) –If there is no traffic If the time since the last transmission is less than a critical value, the station sets a random timer and waits –If there is no traffic at the end of the waiting time, the station sends –If there is traffic, CSMA starts over again Box

39. 5-39 Figure 5-16: CSMA/CA+ACK in 802.11 Wireless LANs ACK (Acknowledgment) –Receiver immediately sends back an acknowledgment when it receives a frame Does not wait to send an ACK This avoids interference with other stations, which must wait –If sender does not receive the acknowledgment, it retransmits the frame using CSMA/CA –802.11 with CSMA/CA+ACK is a reliable protocol! Box

40. 5-40 Figure 5-17: Request to Send/Clear to Send (RTS/CTS) Server Switch Laptop Access Point B Large Wired LAN Radio Link Client PC RTS 1. Device that wishes to transmit may send a Request-to-Send message Box

41. 5-41 Figure 5-17: Request to Send/Clear to Send (RTS/CTS) Server Switch May Send Frames WAP Large Wired LAN Radio Link Client PC 2. Wireless access point broadcasts a Clear-to-Send message. Station that sent the RTS may transmit unimpeded. Other stations hearing the CTS must wait CTS Box Must Wait

42. 5-42 Recap CSMA/CA+ACK is mandatory RTS/CTS is optional –However, it is mandatory if 802.11b and 802.11g NICs share the same 802.11g access point Box

43. 802.11 WLAN Standards

44. 5-44 Figure 5-18: Specific 802.11 Wireless LAN Standards 802.11b802.11g if 802.11g access point serves an 802.11b station 2.4 GHz Unlicensed Band Lower Attenuation Yes 802.11a 5 GHz Higher NoYes Crowded Band? Lower PriceHigher LowerMarket AcceptanceVery LowHigh

45. 5-45 Figure 5-18: Specific 802.11 Wireless LAN Standards 802.11b802.11g if 802.11g access point serves an 802.11b station 11 Mbps54 Mbps Not Specified Rated Speed* 6 Mbps25 Mbps12 MbpsThroughput, 3 m 6 Mbps 802.11a 54 Mbps 25 Mbps 12 Mbps20 Mbps11 MbpsThroughput, 30 m Source for throughput data: Broadband.com 802.11a, operating at a higher frequency, has more attenuation Than 802.11b *Maximum rated speed. There are slower modes if propagation is poor.

46. 5-46 Figure 5-18: Specific 802.11 Wireless LAN Standards, Continued Transmission Speed and Distance –As a station moves away from an access point, transmission speed falls There are several modes of operation specified in each standard The fastest mode only works with a very strong signal As the user moves away, the signal strength becomes too low That station and the access point switch to a slower mode This slows things down for all users

47. 5-47 Figure 5-18: Specific 802.11 Wireless LAN Standards 802.11b802.11a802.11g if 802.11g access point serves an 802.11b station 3Up to 2433 Number of Non- Overlapping Channels 2.4 GHz5 GHz2.4 GHz Unlicensed Band 2.4 GHz non-overlapping channels are 1, 6, and 11

48. 5-48 Figure 5-19: Interference Between Nearby Access Points Operating on the Same Channel Access Point Channels Should be Selected to Minimize Mutual Interference

49. 5-49 802.11n Under Development –Rated speeds of 100 Mbps to 600 Mbps –Will operate in both the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands –May use twice current bandwidth per channels (~20 MHz) to roughly double speed –Will use MIMO –Currently a draft standard

50. WLAN Security

51. 5-51 Figure 5-21: WLAN Security Threats (Study Figure) Drive-By Hackers –Sit outside the corporate premises and read network traffic –Can send malicious traffic into the network –Easily done with readily available downloadable software War Drivers –Merely discover unprotected access points–become drive-by hackers only if they break in

52. 5-52 Figure 5-21: WLAN Security Threats, Continued Rogue Access Points –Unauthorized access points set up by department or individual –Often have very poor security, making drive-by hacking easier –Often operate at high power, attracting many clients

53. 5-53 Figure 5-21: WLAN Security Threats, Continued Evil Twin Access Points –Create a fake access point outside walls of firm using a PC –Legitimate internal client associates with the evil twin access point, which operates at high power Evil Twin AP Legitimate Client Legitimate AP Duped Association

54. 5-54 Figure 5-21: WLAN Security Threats, Continued Evil Twin Access Points –Evil twin then associates with a legitimate internal access point masquerading as the internal clients –This connects the evil twin to the firm’s internal network Evil Twin AP Legitimate Client Legitimate AP 1. Associates 2. Associates As Legitimate Client

55. 5-55 Figure 5-21: WLAN Security Threats, Continued Evil Twin Access Points –Evil twin can then read all traffic, even if the sender and receive encrypt their messages because the evil twin steals authentication credentials passed between the clients and the legitimate access point –Also can insert traffic –Classic man-in-the-middle attack Evil Twin AP Legitimate Client Legitimate AP

56. 5-56 Figure 5-22: 802.11 Security Standards (Study Figure) Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) –Initial security provided with 802.11 in 1997 –Everyone shared the same secret key –Other weaknesses –Readily available programs can crack WEP keys in less than 10 minutes –WEP should never be used in corporations –By 2001, WLAN security was in crisis

57. 5-57 Figure 5-22: 802.11 Security Standards, Continued Wireless Protected Access (WPA) –The Wi-Fi Alliance normally certifies interoperability of 802.11 equipment –Created WPA as a stop-gap security standard in 2002 until the IEEE 802.11i standard discussed next was finished –WPA lightened 802.11i security so that older access points and wireless NICs could be upgraded to WPA

58. 5-58 Figure 5-22: 802.11 Security Standards, Continued 802.11i –Created by the IEEE –Uses powerful AES-CCMP encryption with 128-bit keys for confidentiality and key management –Wi-Fi Alliance calls 802.11i “WPA2” –Should be used if equipment supports it. –Vendor support has been slow in coming.

59. 5-59 Modes of Operation Both 802.11i and WPA (as a subset of 802.11i) operate in two modes –802.1X mode and –Preshared Key (PSK) Mode WPA802.11i (WPA2) Can use 802.1X Mode? Yes Can use PSK Mode? Yes

60. 5-60 Figure 5-22: 802.11 Security Standards, Continued Pre-Shared Key (PSK) Mode –Only for firms with a single access point –Access point does all authentication and key management –All users must know an initial pre-shared key (PSK) Each, however, is later given a unique key –If the pre-shared key is weak, it is easily cracked Pass phrases are used to generate keys; must be at least 20 characters long –Wi-Fi Alliance calls this “personal mode”

61. 5-61 Figure 5-23: 802.11 Security in 802.1X (Enterprise Mode) Operation –Clients send authentication credentials to access point –Access point sends these to an authentication server –Central authentication server sends back OK or Reject Central Authentication Server Access Points Client Credentials OK Accept

62. 5-62 Figure 5-23: 802.11 Security in 802.1X (Enterprise Mode) Central Authentication Server –Provides consistency in authentication –Same decision no matter what access point a client connects to –Attackers cannot search for a misconfigured access point Central Authentication Server Access Points Client Credentials OK Accept

63. 5-63 Figure 5-23: 802.11 Security in 802.1X (Enterprise Mode) Extensible Authentication Protocols (EAPs) –Messages are standardized by an extensible authentication protocol (EAP) –There are several EAPs. The most popular is PEAP, which Microsoft favors Central Authentication Server Access Points Client Credentials OK Accept

64. 5-64 Figure 5-23: 802.11 Security in 802.1X (Enterprise Mode) Keys –Central authentication also provides keys to clients –Changes the keys frequently Central Authentication Server Access Points Client Key

65. 5-65 Perspective WEP operates in only one mode: shared key Both WPA and 802.11i operate in both 802.1X (enterprise) or pre-shared key (personal) mode 802.11i offers stronger security than WPA The Wi-Fi Alliance calls 802.11i “WPA2”

66. 802.11 WLAN Management

67. 5-67 Figure 5-24: Wireless LAN Management (Study Figure) Access Points Placement in a Building –Must be done carefully for good coverage and to minimize interference between access points –Lay out 30-meter to 50-meter radius circles on blueprints –Adjust for obvious potential problems such as brick walls –In multistory buildings, must consider interference in three dimensions

68. 5-68 Figure 5-24: Wireless LAN Management (Study Figure) Access Points Placement in a Building –Install access points and do site surveys to determine signal quality –Adjust placement and signal strength accordingly –This is quite expensive

69. 5-69 Figure 5-25: Wireless Access Point Management Alternatives Management intelligence can be placed in the access point or the WLAN switch

70. 5-70 Figure 5-24: Wireless LAN Management (Study Figure) Remote Access Point Management –Desired functionality Continuous transmission quality monitoring Immediate notification of failures Remote AP adjustment (power, channel, etc.) Ability to push software updates out to all APs or WLAN switches Take appropriate actions automatically whenever possible

71. Bluetooth For Personal Area Networks (PANs)

72. 5-72 Figure 5-26: Bluetooth Personal Area Networks (PANs) (Study Figure) For Personal Area Networks (PANs) –Devices around a desk (computer, mouse, keyboard, printer) –Devices on a person’s body and nearby (cellphone, PDA, notebook computer, etc.) –Cable replacement technology

73. 5-73 Figure 5-26: Bluetooth Personal Area Networks (PANs), Continued Disadvantages Compared to 802.11 –Short distance (10 meters) –Low speed (3 Mbps, with a slower reverse channel) –Insufficient for WLAN in a building

74. 5-74 Figure 5-26: Bluetooth Personal Area Networks (PANs), Continued Advantages Compared to 802.11 –Low battery power drain so long battery life between recharges –Application profiles Define how devices will work together with little or no human intervention Sending print jobs to printers File synchronization Etc. Somewhat rudimentary Devices typically only automate a few access profiles

75. 5-75 Figure 5-26: Bluetooth Personal Area Networks (PANs), Continued Bluetooth Trends –Bluetooth Alliance is enhancing Bluetooth –The next version of Bluetooth is likely to grow to use ultrawideband transmission This should raise speed to 100 Mbps (or more) Transmission distance will remain limited to 10 meters Good for distributing television within a house

76. 5-76 Figure 5-1: Local Wireless Technologies, Continued Other Local Wireless Technologies –Ultrawideband: Up to 250 Mbps (fast) over a distance of 10 meters (short) –Ideal for video networking in homes –ZigBee for almost-always-off sensor networks at low speeds –Allows battery lives of months or years –Radio Frequency ID (RFID) tags: like UPC product tags but readable from a small distance –RFID reader sends probe signal that powers the RFID tag, which then responds with its information

77. Topics Covered

78. 5-78 Local Wireless Technologies 802.11 for Corporate WLANs Bluetooth for PANs Ultrawideband (UWB) RFIDs ZigBee Mesh Networks

79. 5-79 Radio Propagation Frequencies and Channels Antennas Propagation Problems –Inverse square law attenuation –Dead spots / shadow zones –Electromagnetic interference –Multipath interference –Attenuation and shadow zone problems increase with frequency

80. 5-80 Radio Propagation Shannon’s Equation and the Importance of Channel Bandwidth –C = B Log 2 (1+S/N) WLANs use unlicensed Radio Bands Spread Spectrum Transmission to Reduce Propagation Problems –FHSS (up to 4 Mbps) –DSSS (up to 11 Mbps) –OFDM (up to 54 Mbps) –MIMO (100 Mbps to 600 Mbps)

81. 5-81 802.11 Operation Wireless Access Point Bridge to the Main Wired Ethernet LAN –To reach servers and Internet access routers –Transfers packet between 802.11 and 802.3 frames Need for Media Access Control (Box) –CSMA/CA and RTS/CTS –Throughput is aggregate throughput

82. 5-82 802.11 Operation Bands –2.4 GHz band: Only 3 channels, lower attenuation –5 GHz band: Around 24 channels, higher attenuation –More channels means less interference between nearby access points Standards –802.11b: 11 Mbps, DSSS, 2.4 GHz band –802.11a: 54 Mbps, OFDM, 2.4 GHz band –802.11g: 54 Mbps, OFDM, 5 GHz band –802.11n: 100 Mbps – 600 Mbps, MIMO, Dual-Band

83. 5-83 802.11 WLAN Security Wardrivers and Drive-By Hackers Core Security –WEP (Unacceptably Weak) –WPA (Lightened form of 802.11i) –802.11i (The gold standard today) –802.1X and PSK modes for WPA and 802.11i Rogue Access Points and Evil Twin Access Points

84. 5-84 WLAN Management Surprisingly Expensive Access Point Placement –Approximate layout –Site survey for more precise layout and power Remote Access Point Management –Smart access points or WLAN switches and dumb access points

85. 5-85 Bluetooth PANs Cable Replacement Technology Limited Speeds and Distance Application Profiles UWB in the Future?