1. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. THE GEOGRAPHY OF TRANSPORT SYSTEMS Chapter 8 – Transport and the Environment CONCEPTS Copyright © 1999-2007, Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University, Hempstead, NY, 11549 USA. Jean-paul.Rodrigue@hofstra.edu You may use the figures within for educational purposes only. No modification or redistribution permitted. For more information: http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans

2. THE GEOGRAPHY OF TRANSPORT SYSTEMS Concept 1 The Emerging Issue of Transport and the Environment

3. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. The Paradox of Mobility and its Costs Mobility Costs Paradox Growing demand Motorization Energy (petroleum) Internal costs (users) External costs (society) Environmental impacts

4. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. The Environmental System Ecosphere Atmosphere Hydrosphere Lithosphere Biosphere

5. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. 4. ECOSPHERE 4.1 AQUATIC ECOSPHERE Alteration of ecosystems in unforeseeable ways. Disappearance of vulnerable species and proliferation of tolerant ones. Reduction of bacterial treatment of organic matter by nitrification. Reduction of available nutrients to aquatic species. Reproductive impediments. 4.2 LAND ECOSPHERE Damages over the vegetation modifying: hydric cycles. the level of underground water resources. soil erosion. air purification capacity of the ecosphere. food sources (agriculture). entertainment and tourism. Reduction of the vital space. Reduction of the genetic potential of species. Reduction of the food supply and alteration of the food chain. Consumption of resources. 4.3 HUMAN ECOSPHERE Odors. Noise. Cardiovascular and respiratory problems. Susceptibility to infection. Drops in life expectancy. Injuries, incapacity, hospitalization, death. Damage to structures: loss of useful life. (amortization) loss of property values. corrosion of metal structures (bronze, steel, etc.). destruction of historical and cultural monuments. 1. ATMOSPHERE Large scale diffusion of pollutants. High growth on a short term basis of the concentration of pollutants because of local conditions (e.g. smog). Photochemical reactions caused by ultraviolet rays, notably over ozone, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. Climatic changes (global warming). Acid rain. Synergetic effects when pollutants are combined (e.g. smog and greenhouse gases). 2. HYDROSPHERE Diffusion of pollutants in a dissolved or colloidal state. Acidification and loss of neutralizing potential of ground and underground water. Drops of pH following snow melting (aquatic organism are particularly vulnerable). Growth in the solubility of several metals because of acidification. Additions of organic compounds, aluminum, manganese, calcium, magnesium and potassium by runoffs. Contamination of ground and underground water by nitrates. 3. LITHOSPHERE Acid depositions. Liberation of toxic metallic ions (aluminum, cadmium, etc.) through acidification. Loss of nutrients, notably calcium and magnesium. Inhibition of the miniralization of nitrogen. Modifications in the compositions and the depth of decomposition gradient. Inhibition of decomposition. Loss of the soil flora and fauna. Fixation by plants of heavy metals (e.g. lead) and contamination. Removal and consumption of land. Extraction of raw materials like mineral products and energy. The Environmental Impacts of Transportation

6. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Estimated Automobile Costs, 2005

7. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Environmental Dimensions of Transportation Land Use Economics Other Infrastructure construction and maintenance Vehicle and parts manufacture Travel Vehicle maintenance and support Disposal of vehicles and parts Infrastructure construction and maintenance Vehicle and parts manufacture Travel Vehicle maintenance and support Disposal of vehicles and parts Habitat changes Emissions Ambient levels Exposure Social or ecological effects Social or ecological effects Health, environmental or welfare effects Health, environmental or welfare effects CausesActivitiesOutputsEnd Results

8. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Transportation Activities Affecting the Environment Infrastructure Vehicle manufacture Vehicle travel Vehicle maintenance Vehicle disposal Road Rail Maritime Air Passengers Freight Activity Mode Traffic

9. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Transportation Systems and the Environment Localized emissions Energy efficient Diffused networkCentralized network Diffused emissions High energy use Traffic Level of emissions Level of energy consumption Mode Car Bus Walking Rail Nature of emissions Nature of energy consumption Network Traffic Mode

10. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Spatial and Durational Environmental Effects Space Duration Noise Lead Particulates NOX CO2 Local Regional Global

11. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Fossil fuels Atmosphere Limestone Animal activities Decomposition Human activities Respiration and assimilation Respiration Emission Lithosphere Ecosphere Hydrosphere Transportation The Carbon Cycle Vegetation

12. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Level of intervention Optimal cost Intervention costs Total costs Externalities The Concept of Externalities LL(O)0L1 C(L1) C(O) C(E) E(L1) ΔE(L1) ΔC(L1)

13. THE GEOGRAPHY OF TRANSPORT SYSTEMS Concept 2 Transportation and Energy

14. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Sources of Energy Chemical Fossil fuels (Combustion) Nuclear Uranium (Fission of atoms) Chemical Fossil fuels (Combustion) Nuclear Uranium (Fission of atoms) Energy Non-Renewable Renewable Chemical Muscular (Oxidization) Nuclear Geothermal (Conversion) Fusion (Fusion of hydrogen) Gravity Tidal, hydraulic (Kinetic) Indirect Solar Biomass (Photosynthesis) Wind (Pressure differences) Direct Solar Photovoltaic cell (Conversion) Chemical Muscular (Oxidization) Nuclear Geothermal (Conversion) Fusion (Fusion of hydrogen) Gravity Tidal, hydraulic (Kinetic) Indirect Solar Biomass (Photosynthesis) Wind (Pressure differences) Direct Solar Photovoltaic cell (Conversion)

15. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Chemical Energy Content of some Fuels (in MJ/kg)

16. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Power Generated by Steam Machines, Europe, 1840-1888

17. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Evolution of Energy Sources

18. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. World Energy Production (in Terawatts), 2006

19. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Global Energy Systems Transition, (% of market) 2000 1850 215020502100 19501900 100 80 60 40 20 0 Solids Liquids Gases Wood Coal Oil Natural Gas Hydrogen

20. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. World Energy Consumption, 1965-2006 (Million tons oil equivalent)

21. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. World Marketed Energy Consumption by Region, 1980-2030

22. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use..1 1 10.01.002 10301003001000 Speed (m/sec) Tanker Oil Pipeline Truck Cargo plane Bicycle Bus Train Car Helicopter Propeller plane Jet plane Supersonic plane Train Freight Passengers Worst performance Best performance Energy costs Container ship Gas pipeline Energy Efficiency by Transportation Mode

23. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Energy Used by the Transportation System

24. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Factors of Fuel Use by Transportation Technology Vehicle efficiency Type of fuel Technology Vehicle efficiency Type of fuel Economics Prices and incomes Economics Prices and incomes Infrastructure provision and Levels of service Infrastructure provision and Levels of service Urban Form Density and distribution Urban Form Density and distribution Fuel Use

25. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Typical Energy Use for a Car

26. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. World Oil Energy Consumption by Sector, 1973-2004

27. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Demand for Refined Petroleum Products by Sector in the United States, 1960-2005 (in Quadrillion BTUs)

28. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Energy Consumption by Transportation Mode in the United States, 1960-2004 (in Trillion BTUs)

29. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Energy Consumption by Road Transportation in the United States, 1970-2004 (in Trillion BTUs)

30. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Energy Intensities of Passenger Modes, 1980-2000

31. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Fuel Consumption and Travel by Certificated Air Carriers in the United States, 1960-2000

32. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Average Miles per Gallon Traveled by Road Vehicle in the United States, 1980-2000

33. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Average Gasoline Consumption for New Vehicles, United States, 1972-2006 (in miles per gallon)

34. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Light-Duty Vehicles Sales in the United States, 1975-2006 (in 1,000s)

35. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Change in Average Vehicle Characteristics, 1981-2003 (in %)

36. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Total Motor Vehicle Fuel Consumption and Travel in the United States, 1960-2005

37. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Components of Retail Costs of Gasoline, United States, 1999-2005

38. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Automobile Emission Factors

39. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Gasoline Prices, 1978-2002 Selected Countries (current dollars per gallon)

40. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Retail Motor Gasoline Prices in Selected Countries, 1990-2006

41. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Gasoline Price and Use, Western Industrial Countries, 1994

42. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Gas Consumption Tax in the United States, 1999 (in $ per mile per gallon per vehicle)

43. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Potential Impacts of High Oil Prices on Transportation

44. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Costs of Shipping a 40 foot Container to New York

45. THE GEOGRAPHY OF TRANSPORT SYSTEMS Concept 3 Transportation Pollutants and Environmental Externalities

46. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Emissions from Freight Modes (gram / ton-km)

47. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Estimated Air Pollutants Emitted by Transportation in the United States, 1970-2002

48. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Distance Driven and Carbon Emissions, U.S. Automobile Fleet, 1970-2000

49. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. 120 100 0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 110 Desert 10 Broadcasting studio Quiet room Busy street through closed windows Busy street through open windows Noise level near a motorway Busy crossroads Lorry, motorcycle, underground train Pneumatic drill at 1 meter Aircraft at take off dB (A) Noise Levels (in decibels)

50. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Hazmat Accidents in the United States, 1975-2005

51. THE GEOGRAPHY OF TRANSPORT SYSTEMS Concept 4 Transportation, Land Use and the Environment

52. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Land Area Consumed by the Car in Selected Countries

53. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Current and Potential Car Fleet in India and China

54. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Form Pattern Interactions Spatial Form, Pattern and Interaction and the Environmental Impacts of Transportation

55. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Transportation Energy Use per Capita in Selected Cities, 1990 (in MJ)

56. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. 80 40 20 60 20603004080100 Los Angeles Sydney London Singapore United States Australia and Canada Europe Asia Hong Kong Chicago Houston Phoenix Detroit Denver Adelaide Melbourne Toronto New York Vienna Paris Berlin Tokyo Energy consumption per capita (1,000 millions of joules) Population density (people per hectare) Transport Energy Consumption and Density in Major Metropolitan Areas, 1990

57. Copyright © 1998-2007, Dr. Jean-Paul Rodrigue, Dept. of Economics & Geography, Hofstra University. For personal or classroom use ONLY. This material (including graphics) is not public domain and cannot be published, in whole or in part, in ANY form (printed or electronic) and on any media without consent. This includes conference presentations. Permission MUST be requested prior to use. Population Density, Selected Cities, 1960-1990