1. Bonding and failure of bonds
American Institute for Avalanche Research & Education
Level II Avalanche Course
Bonding and failure of bonds
Avalanche formation and release from the perspective of bonding and failure of bonds.

2. American Institute for Avalanche Research & Education
Level II Avalanche Course
Learning Outcomes
Know how avalanche form and release.
Understand common layering scenarios for slab avalanche formation.
For an avalanche to occur, bonds have to break. Snow is a plastic, almost viscous material, and it is possible for failure to occur in the snowpack without an avalanche occurring.
Failure is part of the process by which the snow adjusts to changes in load and stress.

3. Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
Failure and fracture are two distinct processes.
Failure can occur without fracture.
Both processes involve the breaking of bonds.
Failure is when there are existing bonds are breaking more slowly than there are new bonds forming; the snowpack adjusts as it “heals” itself.
Failure
Existing bonds are breaking more slowly than there are new bonds forming. Problems w/mechanics and materials
Fracture
More existing bonds are breaking than there are new bonds forming

4. Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
Failure without fracture is applying pressure to a metal bar: the bar bends but does not break. This is ductile behavior!
If we bend the bar far enough, a crack forms and propagates through the material and eventually fracture occurs as the bar breaks along the crack.
The terms “failure” and “fracture” are generally used interchangeably by avalanche professionals.
Poor use of standard terminology.

5. Slab avalanches require: Initiation of failure Fracture
Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
For a slab avalanches, failure has to be initiated, fracture has to occur, and the fracture has to propagate through the snowpack.
In the mountain snowpack, there is always a certain amount of failure occurring.
Metamorphism causes the size, shape, and bonds between grains to constantly change and adjust.
Slab avalanches require:
Initiation of failure
Fracture

6. Slab avalanches require: Initiation of failure Fracture
Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
In the mountain snowpack, there is always a certain amount of failure occurring.
Gravity, pressure from overlying snow, and incline cause grains to creep, that is, slowly move from one location to another as they try to pack together more closely.
Creep = change of rate versus depth of spx!
Slab avalanches require:
Initiation of failure
Fracture

7. Slab avalanches require: Initiation of failure Fracture
Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
In some cases, an entire section of the snowpack glides down the slope.
Glide is a slow motion avalanche including the formation of a glide crack which is really a fracture line.
In terms of an avalanche starting, failure is initiated by a catastrophic failure that results in snow sliding down the mountainside.
Slab avalanches require:
Initiation of failure
Fracture

8. If failure reaches a critical point, fracture will result.
Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
If failure reaches a critical point, fracture will result.
In some cases, super-weak zones form where fracture is occurring but does not propagate far and/or wide enough to cause an avalanche.
When a super-weak zone becomes large enough, a more generalized failure occurs – resulting in an avalanche.

9. If failure reaches a critical point, fracture will result.
Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
If failure reaches a critical point, fracture will result.
Fractures propagate by spreading along a layer of snow as bonds between grains break.
Fractures also tend to propagate from weak point to weak point in the slab.
Weak points:
1) shallow areas in the snowpack, 2) thin spots in the slab, and/or 3) places where the integrity of the slab is disturbed (e.g. rocks or trees protruding into or through the pack).

10. Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
Bonding is a double edged sword.
Without bonding, the snow would always be in a state of high instability, it would never strengthen and we would never be able to ski slopes of more than a critical angle.
Every time it snowed, the snow would naturally slide off in a loose avalanche or we would always trigger loose avalanches on all slopes above the critical angle (the angle of repose).

11. Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
Bonding is a double edged sword.
With bonding steeplopes are relatively stable because the snow gains strength and stays in place on increased inclines.
The potential for slab avalanches exists; the slab is cohesive enough to stick to steeper slopes and at the same time cohesive enough to carry propagation

12. Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release

13. Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
Stress
Strength
Strength: the bonds that are holding everything together
Stress: F/A applied to the bonds that reduce in bond strength
The bonds in the snowpack are always in a state of balance between strength and stress.
The process of assessing this balance is called snow stability, although it would probably be more accurate to call it snow instability

14. Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
Strength
Stress
Unstable
Stress
Strength
Stable
The snow is always unstable: if enough stress is applied, failure and fracture will occur.
The question is: What it will take to tip the scale and cause an avalanche?

15. Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
The significant difference between snow and other materials is that most materials (e.g., steel) are fabricated to specific standards, at temperatures far from their melting point, and are highly uniform.
The maximum loads are well known, and known safety margins can be calculated and built in.

16. Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
Snow is a material that is not fully understood:
Snow is always within a few degrees of its melting point
It is highly variable over time and space
Snow is difficult to test in the lab or in a natural setting
Natural snow is not created with inherent safety margins.

17. Determining snow stability is largely focused on slab avalanches.
Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
Determining snow stability is largely focused on slab avalanches.
We concentrate primarily on slabs because they are more difficult to predict.
Slabs
1) Harder to predict
2) Weak layers hidden below surface
3) Failure propagates

18. Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
Loose snow avalanches involve surface snow.
This might include a significant depth, even the entire snowpack, but the bonding problem is visible on the surface.
It is relatively easy to assess when loose snow avalanches (especially large, destructive ones) are likely to occur.
Slabs
1) Harder to predict
2) Weak layers hidden below surface
3) Failure propagates

19. Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
Slabs, hide the problem below the surface.
Loose snow avalanches are almost always triggered at the start point, whereas slabs can be triggered remotely.
In loose snow avalanches, fracture propagates in an obvious fashion: from the start point, down the slope.
Slab failure/fracture mechanisms are not well understood.
Slab failure/fracture:
1) There be cohesion between grains; enough that the snow will act as a unit.
2) A strong layer must overlie a weak layer.
3) A trigger must initiate failure.
4) Stress must overcome strength.

20. Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
Slab failure/fracture mechanisms are not well understood.
Slab failure/fracture:
1) There be cohesion between grains; enough that the snow will act as a unit.
2) A strong layer must overlie a weak layer.
3) A trigger must initiate failure.
4) Stress must overcome strength.
Slab failures propagate up, down, and across slopes sometimes over significant terrain features and across surprising distances.

21. Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
How cohesive the snow must be to fail as a slab varies considerably and depends on a combination of factors, such as
Characteristics of the failure layer
Terrain, and
Characteristics of the layer(s) that make up the slab.
Slab failure/fracture requirements:
Cohesion
Strong layer over weak layer.
Trigger initiates failure.
Stress overcomes strength.

22. Soft slabs can be very soft: skis penetrate easily.
Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
Soft slabs can be very soft: skis penetrate easily.
Hard slabs can be very hard: boots do not penetrate.
Soft slabs tend not to carry propagation very far while hard ones may propagate over great distances.
Slab failure/fracture requirements:
Cohesion
Strong layer over weak layer.
Trigger initiates failure.
Stress overcomes strength.

23. Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
How pronounced the strong over weak layering depends on the characteristics of:
Failure layer
Terrain
Characteristics of the layer(s) that make up the slab.
Measuring a difference of two hand hardness grades or more is critical.
Slab failure/fracture requirements:
Cohesion
Strong layer over weak layer.
Trigger initiates failure.
Stress overcomes strength.

24. The point where failure is initiated is called the trigger point.
Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
The mechanism that initiates failure (the process of failure and fracture) is referred to as a trigger.
The point where failure is initiated is called the trigger point.
Natural Triggers
Artificial Triggers
Trigger point

25. Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
Trigger points can be vague and large.
For example, new snow loads a slope over it’s entire surface and the exact point where failure is initiated is not clear.
Or are small and well-defined
For example a skier initiates failure at a rock sticking out of the snow surface.
Natural Triggers
Artificial Triggers
Trigger point

26. Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
Triggers can be natural or artificial.
Natural triggers: related to changes in weather or the snowpack, such as, new snow, wind transported snow, temperature, etc.
Artificial triggers: related to human activities,: such as skiing, operating machinery, applying explosives, etc.

27. Triggers: Natural Artificial.
Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
It is important to understand the difference between a start zone.
Start: where avalanche are likely to start (we see the fracture line here) and
Trigger points: where the failure that causes an avalanche to start is initiated.
Trigger points may or may not be in start zones.
Triggers:
Natural
Artificial.

28. Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
For stress to overcome strength, load on the slab has to increase or the strength of the bonds holding the slab in place has to decrease.
Natural or artificial loads may be added slowly and gradually or rapidly.
The bonds in the snowpack adjust readily to slow loading.
Slow Loading:
Snowpack adjusts well.
Rapid Loading:
Snowpack adjusts poorly .

29. Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
In slow loading, failure occurs but fracture may not: new bonds are forming faster than existing ones are breaking.
Under slow load, we see the snowpack adapt to the new stresses, some examples are mushrooms on trees, overhanging cornices, and snow remaining stable on steep inclines.
There is no clearly defined boundary between slow or fast loading.
Slow Loading:
Snowpack adjusts well.
Rapid Loading:
Snowpack adjusts poorly
Precipitation rates of less than 3 mm of water equivalent per hour is slow loading.

30. Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
Under rapid loading, the snowpack adjusts less readily and there are existing bonds are more prone to break at a faster rate than new ones are forming.
As a result, stress in the snowpack increases at a faster rate than strength builds and it is more likely that fracture will occur.
Slow Loading:
Snowpack adjusts well.
Rapid Loading:
Snowpack adjusts poorly
Precipitation rates of more than 3 mm of water equivalent per hour to be fast loading.

31. Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
Under rapid loading, the snowpack adjusts less readily.
There is no clearly defined boundary between slow or fast loading.
Triggers such as explosives or a cornice fall are a fast load.
Slow Loading:
Snowpack adjusts well.
Rapid Loading:
Snowpack adjusts poorly
Precipitation rates of more than 3 mm of water equivalent per hour to be fast loading.

32. Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
Changes in bond strength can also occur slowly or rapidly.
These changes are related to natural factors, largely weather related.
Such as:
Metamorphism
Temperature fluctuations
Changes in solar radiation
Bonds change rapidly:
> 5oC in a three hour period
Sudden increase in radiation

33. Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
Gradual changes will change bond strength more slowly while more pronounced changes change bond strength more rapidly.
Again, there is no clearly defined boundary between a rapid or slow change
Bonds change rapidly:
> 5oC in a three hour period
Sudden increase in radiation

34. Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
Temperature change of more than 5ºC in a three hour period is a rapid change.
The sun rising on a steep south-facing slope in spring would have a rapid effect.
Bonds change rapidly:
> 5oC in a three hour period
Sudden increase in radiation

35. Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
Metamorphic effects such as rounding or faceting are much slower and take longer to affect bond strength.
Whether these kinds of changes are having an effect may be obvious
For example, snow becomes wet or slushy, but in many cases, the effects on strength, even of rapid changes, are difficult to assess.
Bonds change rapidly:
> 5oC in a three hour period
Sudden increase in radiation

36. Slab release: Shear failure Tensile failure Compression failure
Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
Slab release:
Shear failure
Tensile failure
Compression failure

37. Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
Once stress overcomes strength and the fracture leading to an avalanche occurs, there are at least two and perhaps three events that lead to slab release.

38. Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
Shear failure occurs in the layer which lies between the bed surface and the slab (the failure layer).
Tensile failure occurs at the fracture line or crown and the flanks.
Compression failure may occur in the failure layer and/or at the stauchwall.

39. Shear failure Tensile failure Compression failure
Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
Shear failure
Tensile failure
Compression failure
The jury is still out on which happens first, followed by others, or is the sequence is always the same, or what is the role of compression in failure, and does it occur sometimes or always.

40. Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
We observe these failures even when avalanches do not occur.
The “whumpf” or collapse of a slab when we ski onto it is a sign of compressional failure.
Cracks that occur in the snow as we ski across it are tensile failures.
When we ski across a slope and the slab fails and moves downhill but stops and does not avalanche, shear failure has occurred.

41. Bonding, Failure, and Avalanche Release
This is a simplified discussion of bonding and failure.
While avalanche formation and release is not fully understood, it is worthwhile to have a good general grounding in basic concepts.
If nothing else it is important to realize the complexity of the problem before attempting to discuss stability analysis.
Our lack of understanding of some of these issues is humbling and helps brings our efforts at decision making into clearer perspective.