1. Body Rhythms and Mental States
Chapter 5

2. Body Rhythms and Mental States
Biological rhythms: The tides of experience
The rhythms of sleep
Exploring the dream world
Consciousness-altering drugs
The riddle of hypnosis

3. Biological Rhythms: Tides of Experience
Understanding biological rhythms.
Endogenous biological rhythms.
Circadian rhythms.
When internal clocks are out of sync.
Moods and long-term rhythms.
Menstrual cycles and moods.

4. Understanding Biological Rhythms
Consciousness.
Awareness of oneself and the environment.
Biological rhythms.
A periodic, more or less regular fluctuation in a biological system; may or may not have psychological implications.
Entrainment.
Biological rhythms are synchronized with external events such as changes in clock time, temperature, and daylight.

5. Endogenous Biological Rhythms
Circadian Rhythms
Occur about every 24 hours.
Example:The sleep-wake cycle.
Infradian Rhythms
Occur less often than once a day.
Examples include birds migrating, bears hibernating.
Ultradian Rhythms
Occur more frequently than once a day, about every 90min.
Examples include stomach contractions and hormone levels.

6. Circadian Rhythms Occur in plants, animals, and people.
To study endogenous circadian rhythms, scientists isolate volunteers from time cues..
Supraciasmatic nucleus (SCN).
Located in the hypothalamus, responsible for circadian rhythms by regulating melatonin, a hormone secreted by the pineal gland.

7. When Internal Clocks are Out of Sync
Internal desynchronization
A state when biological rhythms are not in phase with one another.
Circadian rhythms are influenced by changes in routine. Examples include:
Airplane flights across time zones.
Adjusting to new work shifts.
Also, illness, stress, fatigue, excitement, drugs, and mealtimes.

8. Moods and Long-term Rhythms.
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD).
A controversial disorder in which person experiences depression during the winter and an improvement of mood in the spring.
Treatment involves phototherapy or exposure to fluorescent light.
Evaluating frequency of and treatment for SAD is difficult.

9. Menstrual Cycles and Mood.
Physical symptoms are common.
Cramps, breast tenderness and water retention.
Emotional symptoms are rare.
Irritability and depression.
Fewer than 5% of women have symptoms predictably.

10. Why women overestimate “PMS”
They notice depression or irritability when these moods occur premenstrually but overlook times when moods are absent premenstrually.
The attribute irritability before menstruation to PMS and attribute irritability at other times to other reasons.
They are influenced by cultural attitudes and myths about menstruation.

11. Research conclusions about “PMS.”
No gender differences exist in mood.
There is no relation between stage of menstrual cycle and emotional symptoms.
No consistent “PMS” pattern exists across menstrual cycles.
No connection exists between “PMS” and behavior.

12. The Rhythms of Sleep Why we sleep. When we don’t get enough sleep.
The realms of sleep.

13. Why We Sleep
The exact function of sleep is uncertain but sleep appears to provide time for:
the body to eliminate waste products from muscles,
repair cells,
strengthen the immune system, or
recover abilities lost during the day.

14. Sleep Disorders
Sleep deprivation leads to decreases in physical and mental functioning.
Sleep apnea.
Breathing briefly stops during sleep, causing the person to choke and gasp and momentarily waken.
Narcolepsy.
A sleep disorder involving sudden and unpredictable daytime attacks of sleepiness or lapses into REM sleep.
Staying up late and not allowing oneself enough sleep.
2/3 of Americans get fewer than recommended 8 hours

15. Realms of Sleep
Stage 1. Feel self drifting on the edge of consciousness.
Stage 2. Minor noises won’t disturb you.
Stage 3. Breathing and pulse have slowed down.
Stage 4. Deep sleep.
REM. Increased eye movement, loss of muscle tone and dreaming.

16. A typical night’s sleep for a young adult

17. Exploring the Dream World
Dreams as unconscious wishes.
Dreams as reflections of current concerns.
Dreams as a by-product of mental housekeeping.
Dreams as interpreted brain activity.

18. Dreams as Unconscious Wishes
Freud concluded that dreams provide insight into our unconscious.
Manifest content includes aspects of the dream we consciously experience and latent content includes unconscious wishes and thoughts symbolized in the dream.
To understand a dream we must distinguish manifest content from latent content.
Not everything in dream is symbolic.

19. Dreams as Reflections of Current Concerns
Dreams may reflect ongoing conscious issues such as concerns over relationships, work, sex or health.
Dreams are more likely to contain material related to a person’s current concerns than chance would predict.
Example: college students and testing
Males and females appear to dream about similar issues now that lives and concerns of two sexes have become more similar.

20. Dreams as By-product of Mental Housekeeping
Unnecessary neural connections in the brain are eliminated and important ones are strengthened.
The brain divides new information into “wanted” and “unwanted.”
What we recall as dreams are only brief snippets from scanning and sorting that occurs during REM sleep.

21. Dreams as Interpreted Brain Activity
Activation-synthesis theory.
Dreaming results from the cortical synthesis and interpretation of neural signals triggered by activity in the lower part of the brain.
At same time, brain regions that handle logical thought and sensation from the external world shut down.

22. Conscious-altering Drugs
Classifying drugs.
The physiology of drug effects.
The psychology of drug effects.

23. Classifying Drugs Psychoactive drug. Types.
Substance capable of influencing perception, mood, cognition, or behavior.
Types.
Stimulants
speed up activity in the CNS.
Depressants
slow down activity in the CNS.
Opiates
relieve pain.
Psychedelic drugs
disrupt normal thought processes.

24. The Physiology of Drug Effects
Psychoactive drugs work by acting on brain neurotransmitters. These drugs can:
increase or decrease the release of neurotransmitters,
prevent reabsorption of excess neurotransmitters by the cells that have released them,
block the effects of neurotransmitters on receiving cells, or
bind to receptors that would ordinarily be triggered by a neurotransmitter or a neuromodulator.

25. Cocaine’s Effect on the Brain
Cocaine blocks the brain’s reabsorption (“reuptake”) of the neurotransmitters dopamine and norepinephrine, so levels of these substances rise.
The result is an overstimulation of certain brain circuits and a brief euphoric high.
When drug wears off, depletion of dopamine may cause user to “crash.”

26. The Psychology of Drug Effects.
Reactions to psychoactive drugs depend on:
Physical factors such as body weight, metabolism, initial state of emotional arousal and physical tolerance.
Experience or the number of times a person has used a drug.
Environmental factors such as where and with whom one is drinking.
Mental set or expectations for drug’s effects.

27. The Riddle of Hypnosis Defining hypnosis. The nature of hypnosis.
Theories of hypnosis.

28. Defining hypnosis
A procedure in which the practitioner suggests changes in the sensations, perceptions, thoughts, feelings or behavior of the subject.

29. The Nature of Hypnosis The hypnotic state is not sleep.
Hypnotic responsiveness depends more on the person being hypnotized than on the skill of the hypnotist.
Hypnotized people can’t be forced to do things against their will.
Feats performed under hypnosis can be performed by motivated people without hypnosis.

30. The Nature of Hypnosis Hypnosis doesn’t increase accuracy of memory.
Hypnosis doesn’t produce a literal reexperiencing of long-ago events.
Hypnotic suggestions have been used effectively for medical and psychological purposes.

31. Theories of Hypnosis Dissociation theories.
Hypnosis is a split in consciousness in which one part of the mind operates independently of the rest of the consciousness, or
During hypnosis, dissociation occurs between an executive control system in the brain (probably frontal lobes) and other brain systems involved in thinking and acting.

32. Theories of Hypnosis Sociocognitive theories
Effects of hypnosis result from interaction between social influence of the hypnotist (socio) and the abilities, beliefs and expectations of the subject (cognitive).
Can explain “alien abduction” and “past-life regression.