1. L ANGUAGE - LEARNING AND TEACHING PROCESSES AND YOUNG CHILDREN (Chapter 6) Miss. Mona AL-Kahtani

2. C HILDREN LEARNING STRATEGIES Although there are many variation in the way children learn the language, there are underlying strategies that are used by most of the children. Those strategies differ with the langue level of a child. Miss. Mona AL-Kahtani

3. T ODDLER LANGUAGE - LEARNING STRATEGIES Receptive Strategies: When is a word a word?? Before children can recognize words, they must gain a sense of how sounds go together to form syllables of the native language. Miss. Mona AL-Kahtani

4. Infants may use lexical, syntactic, phonological and stress-pattern cues in combination to break the speech down and aid interpretation. (e.g. Clusters n English and Korean) As a result, children will be able to locate word boundaries and hence speech can be recognized as a series of distinct units, but still meaningless words. ( around 11 months old) Miss. Mona AL-Kahtani

5. I T IS NOT ENOUGH !! HOW CHILDREN LEARN WORDS ???? Linguistics do not really know but they tried to infer from the language behaviors of toddlers that certain lexical principles or assumptions are being used. Miss. Mona AL-Kahtani

6. Three fundamental assumptions for toddlers:  1) People use words to refer to entities. (i.e. Reference Principle) - People refer to entities. Words do not just “go with” but “stand for” entities to which they refer. - As a result, a toddler must be able to determine the speaker’s intention to refer, the linguistic patterns used, and the entities. Miss. Mona AL-Kahtani

7. a subprinciple is the mutual exclusivity assumption. It guides initial word learning by presupposing that each referent has a unique symbol. For example, a reference can not be both a “cup” and a “spoon” Miss. Mona AL-Kahtani

8.  2) Words are extendable. (i.e. Extendability Principle) toddlers assumes that there is some similarity, such as shared perceptual attributes that enable use of one symbol for more than one referent. For example, A “cup” will refer to the child’s cup and those other cups for other children. Miss. Mona AL-Kahtani

9.  3) A given word refers to the whole entity, not its parts. ( i.e. Whole-object Principle) A word refer to a whole entity rather than to a part or attribute. In fact parts are rare in toddler lexicon. For example, “doggie” refer to the dog not his fur, leg or color. Miss. Mona AL-Kahtani

10. Three additional assumption may be needed for the toddler to form hypothetical definitions quickly and to use syntactic information.  4) Categorical Assumption. (18 months old) infants extend a word to related entities. They classify those entities based on the perceptual attributes, function, and communication characteristics such as shortness and length. Miss. Mona AL-Kahtani

11. Unlike the Extendibility Principle, the Categorical Assumption goes beyond the basic- level referents of the same kind to categories of entities. For example, a “cup” might be extended to all the objects that hold liquid. Miss. Mona AL-Kahtani

12.  5) Novel Name-nameless Assumption. Infants will link a symbol and referent after only a few exposures. In other words, a child assumes tat a novel (new) word is linked to a previously unnamed referent. Patents aid this by pointing to, holding, etc. Miss. Mona AL-Kahtani

13.  The Conventionality Assumption. Infants expect meanings to be expressed by others in consistent conventional forms. in other words, adults do not change the symbol with each use. As a result, a ‘car’ will be called car all the time. Miss. Mona AL-Kahtani

14. E XPRESSIVE STRATEGIES Miss. Mona AL-Kahtani Children use FOUR expressive strategies to acquire the language. Evocative utterancesHypothesis testingInterrogative utterancesSelective imitation

15. Evocative utterance It is a toddler learning strategy in which the child name entities. After the child did that, the adult should either confirm or negate the child’s selection of words. As a result, the child either maintain or modify her speech. Miss. Mona AL-Kahtani

16. Hypothesis-testing It is a toddler language learning strategy in which a child seeks confirmation of the name of the entity by naming it with raising intonation, then posing a yes/no question. A responding adult may confirm or deny the hypothesis. For example, “Doggie “ Miss. Mona AL-Kahtani

17. Interrogative testing It is a toddler learning strategy in which a child attempts to learn the name of an entity by asking “What? That? Wassat?” Those requests for confirmation are often found in the pointing and vocalizing behavior of infants prior to first words. Miss. Mona AL-Kahtani

18. Selective Imitation Why selective?? Because children do not imitate indiscriminately. For example; Adult: Daddy home. Child: Daddy home. === Adult: The doggie is sick. Child: Doggie sick Miss. Mona AL-Kahtani

19. Role of the selective imitation It is a toddler learning strategy in which a child repeat part or a whole utterance of another speaker. Imitation is used to acquire morphemes, words, syntactic-semantic structures. Usually, imitation is more mature than production capacities of children and this why it is used as a learning strategy. Miss. Mona AL-Kahtani

20. The role of imitation as an aid in acquisition of language is very complex. Why? Imitation of other is important for vocabulary growth. Self-imitation is important for the transition from single-word utterance to multiple-word language production. Miss. Mona AL-Kahtani

21. After age 2, the amount of imitation decreases. At the single-word level, selective imitation is important for vocabulary growth. Miss. Mona AL-Kahtani

22.  Imitation may also serve as a conversational role, enabling the child to relate his/her utterance to those of more mature language users. For example; Adult: See Johnny ride his bike? Child: Ride bike. Bike fall. Adult: No. He won’t fall. Child: No Fall. No go boom. Miss. Mona AL-Kahtani

23. The child uses two strategies of revision: focus operation and substitution operation. Focus Operation : When a child focuses on one or more words and repeat them - requires minimal linguistics skills. - predominate till age 3 Substitution Operation : when the child repeats only a portion of the utterance and replaces words. Miss. Mona AL-Kahtani

24. Formulas: memorized verbal routine or unanalyzed chunk of language often used in everyday conversation. For example; When the child ends all his conversation in :See yea, bye!” Miss. Mona AL-Kahtani

25. Both selective imitation and formulas provide “scaffolding” for a child and reduce the langue process load because they aid linguistic analysis. Evocative, interrogative hypothesis testing enable the child to further participate in conversation and to explore and test new words and utterances. Miss. Mona AL-Kahtani