2. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-1 Electronics Principles & Applications Eighth Edition Chapter 11 Oscillators (student version) Charles A. Schuler ©2013

3. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-2 Oscillator Characteristics RC Circuits LC Circuits Crystal Circuits Relaxation Oscillators Undesired Oscillations Troubleshooting Direct Digital Synthesis INTRODUCTION

4. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-3 Dear Student: This presentation is arranged in segments. Each segment is preceded by a Concept Preview slide and is followed by a Concept Review slide. When you reach a Concept Review slide, you can return to the beginning of that segment by clicking on the Repeat Segment button. This will allow you to view that segment again, if you want to.

5. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-4 Concept Preview Oscillators convert dc to ac. Oscillators use positive feedback. An amplifier will oscillate if it has positive feedback and has more gain than loss in the feedback path. Sinusoidal oscillators have positive feedback at only one frequency. A lead-lag network produces a phase shift of 0 degrees at only one frequency.

6. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-5 Some possible output waveforms Oscillator Oscillators convert dc to ac. ac out dc in

7. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-6 V in V out A B Feedback V out A B Feedback An amplifier with negative feedback. This amplifier has positive feedback. It oscillates if A > B. Recall: A = open-loop gain and B = feedback fraction

8. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-7 V out A B Feedback Sinusoidal oscillators have positive feedback at only one frequency. This can be accomplished with RC or LC networks. frequency phase + 90  00 - 90  fRfR in out lead-lag fRfR in out

9. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-8 Oscillator basics quiz Oscillators convert dc to _______. ac In order for an oscillator to work, the feedback must be __________. positive An oscillator can’t start unless gain (A) is ________ than feedback fraction (B). greater Sine wave oscillators have the correct feedback phase at one ___________. frequency The phase shift of an RC lead-lag network at f R is _____________. 0o0o

10. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-9 Concept Review Oscillators convert dc to ac. Oscillators use positive feedback. An amplifier will oscillate if it has positive feedback and has more gain than loss in the feedback path. Sinusoidal oscillators have positive feedback at only one frequency. A lead-lag network produces a phase shift of 0 degrees at only one frequency. Repeat Segment

11. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-10 Concept Preview The Wien bridge oscillator can produce a low- distortion sine wave output. A Wien bridge oscillator operates at the resonant frequency of its lead-lag network. The gain of some oscillator circuits must be reduced after oscillations begin to avoid clipping. Since common emitter amplifiers produce a phase inversion, a second phase inversion is required for positive feedback. RC networks can provide a 180 degree phase shift at the desired frequency of oscillation.

12. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-11 Wien bridge oscillator Only f R arrives at the + input in phase. lead-lag in out R C C R  RC 1 f R =

13. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-12 in out The feedback fraction at f R in this circuit is one-third: B = in out = 1 3 A must be > 3 for oscillations to start. After that, A must be reduced to avoid driving the op amp to V SAT. R 2  2R 1 R1R1 A = 1 + R2R2 R1R1 One solution is a positive temperature coefficient device here to decrease gain.

14. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-13 After the oscillations start, the lamp heats up which increases its resistance to reduce gain and clipping. R V out C RLRL 2R 1 Tungsten lamp CR R1R1 V out time

15. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-14 Q 1 is an N-channel JFET. After oscillations start, the output signal is rectified and the negative voltage is applied to the JFET’s gate. This increases its D-S resistance which decreases the gain of the op amp. Q1Q1 D S G Notice that the clipping subsides as Q 1 reduces the loop gain.

16. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-15 When common-emitter amplifiers are used as oscillators, the feedback circuit must provide a 180 o phase shift to make the circuit oscillate. A B Out-of-phase 180 o 180 o + 180 o = 360 o = 0 o In-phase

17. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-16 RBRB RLRL V CC C C C R R Feedback 1 2 3 3 RC networks provide a total phase shift of 180 o. A phase-shift oscillator based on a common-emitter amplifier

18. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-17 A phase-shift oscillator based on an inverting operational amplifier The gain must be high enough to start the oscillator, but then clipping often results which causes distortion. These circuits often use gain reduction techniques after the oscillations begin.

19. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-18 A phase-shift oscillator using two op-amps and gain limiting for low distortion.

20. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-19 RC oscillator quiz A properly designed Wien bridge oscillator provides a ________ waveform. sine The feedback fraction in a Wien bridge oscillator is ________. 0.333 A tungsten lamp has a _________ temperature coefficient. positive The feedback circuit in a common-emitter oscillator provides _______ of phase shift. 180 o A phase shift oscillator uses three RC sections to provide a total shift of ______. 180 o

21. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-20 Concept Review The Wien bridge oscillator can produce a low- distortion sine wave output. A Wien bridge oscillator operates at the resonant frequency of its lead-lag network. The gain of some oscillator circuits must be reduced after oscillations begin to avoid clipping. Since common emitter amplifiers produce a phase inversion, a second phase inversion is required for positive feedback. RC networks can provide a 180 degree phase shift at the desired frequency of oscillation. Repeat Segment

22. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-21 Concept Preview RF oscillators often use LC tank circuits to control the frequency of oscillation. The tank circuits are tapped to control the amount of feedback. Hartley oscillators use tapped coils while Colpitts oscillators use capacitive taps. Common emitter oscillators require a 180 degree phase shift across their tank circuits. Quartz is a piezoelectric material. When it vibrates, it produces an electrical signal. Quartz crystals can replace tank circuits and provide exceptional frequency stability.

23. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-22 +V CC The Hartley oscillator is LC controlled. feedback tank circuit The supply tap is a signal ground. There is a 180 o phase shift across the tank. 180 o 0o0o signal ground

24. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-23 +V CC 22 LC 1 f R = L C The output frequency is equal to the resonant frequency. L is the value for the entire coil.

25. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-24 +V CC This is called a Colpitts oscillator. The capacitive leg of the tank is tapped. feedback

26. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-25 +V CC Note that the amplifier configuration is common-base. The emitter is the input and the collector is the output. The feedback circuit returns some of the collector signal to the input with no phase shift. signal ground

27. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-26 +V CC L C EQ 22 LC EQ 1 f R =

28. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-27 Quartz crystalSlab cut from crystal Electrodes and leads Schematic symbol Quartz is a piezoelectric material.

29. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-28 Quartz crystals replace LC tanks when frequency accuracy is important. Quartz disc Rear metal electrode Front metal electrode Contact pins Equivalent circuit CPCP CSCS

30. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-29 Crystal equivalent circuit The equivalent R is very small and the Q is often several thousand. R High-Q tuned circuits are noted for narrow bandwidth and this translates to frequency stability. The equivalent circuit also predicts two resonant frequencies: series and parallel. A given oscillator circuit is designed to use one or the other. CSCS CPCP

31. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-30 Crystals The fundamental frequency (series resonance) is controlled by the quartz slab or quartz disk thickness. Higher multiples of the fundamental are called overtones. The electrode capacitance creates a parallel resonant frequency which is slightly higher. Typical frequency accuracy is measured in parts per million (ppm).

32. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-31 +V CC Crystal oscillator circuit R B2 R B1 RFC RERE C2C2 C1C1 CECE v out Xtal Replaces the tank circuit

33. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-32 Packaged oscillators contain a quartz crystal and the oscillator circuitry in a sealed metal can.

34. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-33 High-frequency oscillator quiz A Hartley oscillator has a tapped _______ in its tank circuit. coil When the capacitive leg is tapped, the circuit might be called ________. Colpitts A quartz crystal is a solid-state replacement for the ________ circuit. tank Crystals are more stable than LC tanks due to their very high ________. Q Higher multiples of a crystal’s resonant frequency are called ________. overtones

35. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-34 Concept Review RF oscillators often use LC tank circuits to control the frequency of oscillation. The tank circuits are tapped to control the amount of feedback. Hartley oscillators use tapped coils while Colpitts oscillators use capacitive taps. Common emitter oscillators require a 180 degree phase shift across their tank circuits. Quartz is a piezoelectric material. When it vibrates, it produces an electrical signal. Quartz crystals can replace tank circuits and provide exceptional frequency stability. Repeat Segment

36. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-35 Concept Preview Relaxation oscillators are controlled by RC time constants. Unijunction transistors have a relatively high resistance from emitter to base 1 before they fire. A UJT relaxation oscillator produces two waveforms: exponential sawtooth and pulse. The operating frequency of a UJT oscillator is approximately equal to the reciprocal of its RC time constant. Astable multivibrators are also RC controlled and provide a rectangular output.

37. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-36 So far, we have learned that: Oscillators can be RC controlled by using phase-shifts. Oscillators can be LC controlled by using resonance. Oscillators can be crystal controlled by using resonance or overtones. There is another RC type called relaxation oscillators. These are time-constant controlled.

38. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-37 Base 2 Base 1 Emitter RECALL that a unijunction transistor fires when its emitter voltage reaches V P. VPVP Emitter current Emitter voltage Then, the emitter voltage drops due to its negative resistance characteristic. UJTs can be used in relaxation oscillators.

39. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-38 +V BB R C A UJT relaxation oscillator provides two waveforms.  RC f  RC  Exponential sawtooth Pulse VPVP

40. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-39 +V BB R3R3 C A programmable unijunction transistor (PUT) is a better choice. η = R1R1 R2R2 R4R4 PUT V P = 0.7 V + ηV BB VPVP (η is called the intrinsic standoff ratio)

41. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-40  = 0.69RC = 0.69 x 47 k  x 3.3 nF = 0.107 ms t = 2  = 0.214 ms f = 1/t = 4.67 kHz This multivibrator is also RC controlled. 0 V

42. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-41 Concept Review Relaxation oscillators are controlled by RC time constants. Unijunction transistors have a relatively high resistance from emitter to base 1 before they fire. A UJT relaxation oscillator produces two waveforms: exponential sawtooth and pulse. The operating frequency of a UJT oscillator is approximately equal to the reciprocal of its RC time constant. Astable multivibrators are also RC controlled and provide a rectangular output. Repeat Segment

43. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-42 Concept Preview Amplifiers provide gain but should not oscillate. Parasitic RC lag networks make negative feedback positive at some frequency. If there is gain at that frequency, an amplifier will be unstable. Frequency compensation stabilizes feedback amplifiers by decreasing the gain at those frequencies where the feedback becomes positive. Bypassing, shielding, neutralization, and phase compensation are other ways to ensure stability. Direct digital synthesis is a method to generate many, highly accurate, frequencies.

44. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-43 Non-sinusoidal op-amp oscillators can also use RC time constants for frequency control, as shown in this circuit. Exponential sawtooth, which is sometimes treated as a triangle.

45. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-44 Undesired oscillations: make amplifiers useless. Why is this a problem?

46. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-45 Output R C Parasitic capacitances combine with resistances to form un-wanted lag networks. R C R C

47. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-46 R C This can lead to unwanted oscillations since the feedback becomes positive at some higher frequency. It’s the equivalent of a phase-shift oscillator. Total Lag = 180 o R C R C

48. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-47 R C R C R C However, if the gain is less than unity at that frequency, the amplifier will not oscillate. There is always some frequency where feedback becomes positive.

49. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-48 100 k 10 k 1 10100 1k 1M 0 20 80 40 60 100 120 Frequency in Hz Gain in dB The typical op amp has this characteristic: Break frequency set by a dominant (intentional) internal lag circuit. The gain is less than unity before combined lags total 180 o of phase shift.

50. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-49 Methods of preventing oscillation: Reduce the feedback with bypass circuits, shields, and careful circuit layout. Cancel feedback with a second path … this is called neutralization. Reduce the gain for frequencies where the feedback becomes positive … this is called frequency compensation. Reduce the total phase shift … this is called phase compensation.

51. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-50 Oscillator troubleshooting: No output: supply voltage; component failure; oscillator is overloaded. Reduced output: low supply voltage; bias; component defect; loading. Frequency instability: supply voltage; poor connection or contact; temperature; RC, LC, or crystal. Frequency error: supply voltage; loading; RC, LC, or crystal.

52. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-51 Phase accumulator Sine lookup table DAC LPF Clock Direct digital synthesizer Frequency tuning word (binary) (also called a numerically controlled oscillator) The tuning word changes the phase increment value.

53. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-52 30 o phase rotation 45 o phase rotation NOTE: Increasing the phase increment increases the frequency. Access the sine table every 30 o

54. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-53 Direct digital synthesizer using the AD9850 IC

55. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-54 Oscillator wrap-up quiz Relaxation oscillators are controlled by RC __________ __________. time constants Negative feedback becomes positive at some frequency due to _______ ______. RC lags Gain rolloff to prevent oscillation is called ____________ compensation. frequency Direct digital synthesizers are also called _____ _____ oscillators. numerically controlled Direct digital synthesizers use a sine ____________ table. lookup

56. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-55 Concept Review Amplifiers provide gain but should not oscillate. Parasitic RC lag networks make negative feedback positive at some frequency. If there is gain at that frequency, an amplifier will be unstable. Frequency compensation stabilizes feedback amplifiers by decreasing the gain at those frequencies where the feedback becomes positive. Bypassing, shielding, neutralization, and phase compensation are other ways to ensure stability. Direct digital synthesis is a method to generate many, highly accurate, frequencies. Repeat Segment

57. McGraw-Hill © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11-56 REVIEW Oscillator Characteristics RC Circuits LC Circuits Crystal Circuits Relaxation Oscillators Undesired Oscillations Troubleshooting Direct Digital Synthesis