1. The Role of Theory in Research BHV 390: Research Methods Kimberly Porter Martin, Ph.D.

2. What is a Theory? Definition: a set of related hypotheses that provide a better explanation than any single hypothesis. Each of the following is a kind of hypothesis: Definitions. Assumptions. Proposed explanations. Logical connections between definitions, asumptions and explanations. If people are talking about any of these things, they are talking about theory.

3. The World of Theories Theories can be based on logic, ideas or belief without the use of empirical evidence Grounded theories are derived from empirical evidence, and are continuously tested against new empirical evidence Many different and sometimes conflicting theories can coexist and be used for different purposes Theories are the basis from which world views are developed and changed

4. Examples of Theories Marx’s Theory Freud’s Theory Social Learning Theory Parental Investment Theory

5. Some of Marx’s Definitions Private property – surplus production Capital – the resources needed to produce surplus Social labor – the labor needed to produce surplus Bourgeoisie – those who control capital Proletariat – those who provide social labor Capitalism – the system of conflict between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat

6. Logical Connections from Marx Private property is produced by social labor using capital. The bourgeoisie control the capital needed to produce private property. The proletariat provide the social labor needed to produce private property. The proletariat cannot produce without capital. The bourgeoisie and the proletariat fight to control capital and, therefore, private property.

7. Three of Marx’s Assumptions Social behavior primarily results from the control and/or manipulation of economic factors. The economic systems of all types of societies work in much the same way. Conflict is inherent in social behavior and organization.

8. Some of Freud’s Definitions Oral Stage – gratification through oral stimulation 0-2 years Anal Stage – gratification through control of bowels 2-3 years Phallic Stage – conflict over attraction to opposite sex parent (Oedipal and Electra Complexes) 3-5 years Latent Stage – avoidance of opposite sex peers 5-12 years Genital Stage – emergence of adult sexuality in teens 12+ years

9. Logical Connections from Freud The first stage for infants is associated with eating/drinking. The second stage for toddlers is associated with potty training. The third stage is associated with first awareness of genitalia. The fourth stage provides a break from sexual development for other skills to emerge. The fifth stage takes individuals into adult sexuality.

10. Freud’s Assumptions Children develop in stages Each stage deals with a major task that must be learned at that time in the child’s life. Physical pleasure and control are primarily focused on sexuality. Child development is primarily affected by stages of sexual awareness. Stages must be completed successfully for normal development. Problems at a any developmental stage will result in problems in adult functioning.

11. Some Parental Investment Theory (PIT) Definitions Parental investment – biological, economic, social and emotional support for offspring. Differential reproduction – variability in the number of offspring produced by individuals. Reproductive potential – the maximum number of offspring possible for an individual. Reproductive success – production of offspring that survive and reproduce.

12. Logical Connections from PIT Human males only have to make a minimal parental investment to obtain reproductive success (a few sperm) Female humans must make an enormous parental investment to obtain reproductive success (+/- 5 years) Male humans have reproductive potential limited only by the number of partners Females have limited reproductive potential because of the investment needed from mothers Males and females will have significantly different mate selection strategies because of differential parental investment.

13. Some PIT Assumptions Human mate choice is influenced by inherited characteristics Inherited characteristics will reflect the most successful mating strategies over time Human mate choice is influenced by both conscious and unconscious factors Culture is the learned set of strategies that help individuals maximize their reproductive success.

14. Some Definitions from Bandura’s Social Learning Theory Attention – noticing and being interested in what others are doing Retention – remembering what others do Reproduction – copying or modeling what others do Motivation – having the desire to do what others do Reinforcement – rewards and punishments for doing what others do

15. Some Logical Connections from SLT When the behaviors of others are rewarded or punished, the behaviors will be noticed. When the behaviors of others are rewarded or punished, the behaviors will be remembered. The behaviors of others that are rewarded will be reproduced Individuals will be motivated to reproduce rewarded behaviors Individual will be motivated to avoid punished behaviors.

16. Some SLT Assumptions Behavior is socially learned. Individuals will model the behaviors of others in their social environments. Individuals will try to maximize rewards and minimize punishments for behaviors.

17. Powerpoint Study Guide Theory Hypothesis Definitions Assumptions Logical Connections Grounded Theories Marx’s Theory Freud’s Theory Social Learning Theory Parental Investment Theory