1. PREPARING AND SUPPORTING GRADUATE STUDENT WRITERS Comments and Considerations

2. Graduate Writing Preparation and Support  We need programs for all graduate students as they move through the various stages of their graduate programs.

3. Goals of Graduate Writing Preparation and Support Novice Author Advanced Beginner Author Competent AuthorProficient AuthorExpert Author?

4. Differences from Novice to Expert (based on Dreyfus 2004)  Novices default to prior knowledge of writing/genre, often looking for rules and directions to follow.  Competent authors can repurpose some writing/genre knowledge, choosing among possibilities and often not knowing what will succeed.  Proficient authors base choices on their genre awareness, take responsibility, and are more likely to succeed.  Experts intuitively see what needs to be done and typically succeed—tacit writing/genre knowledge comes into play.

5. Importance of Stages  We may have opportunities to support transitioning authors at several points along the way.  We can facilitate both the abstraction/transfer of useful writing/genre knowledge and the process of discarding elements that are no longer useful.  Assigned writing in courses may be intended to guide students as they move through different stages.

6. Graduate Student Writing TaskPercentage of classes with specified task (%) Library research paper38 Article/book review20 Report on an experiment/project18 Plan/proposal12 Case study12 Summary/abstract11 Essay7 Journal article7 Unstructured writing8 Annotated bibliography4 MiscellaneousLess than 2

7. Graduate Student Writing TaskSocial sciences/humanities/arts (SS/H/A) Sciences/math/engineering (S/M/E) Chi-square value N=103%N=97%χ2χ2 Library research paper 5553192024.50* Article/Book review 30295519.89* Report on an experiment/proje ct 212018190.11 Plan/Proposal21203314.34* Case study1817557.45* Summary/Abstra ct 17 556.57* Essay13 1110.31* Journal article11 324.42* Unstructured writing 13 228.03* Annotated bibliography 77114.32*

8. Preparation and Support  Despite assigned writing, guidance may be limited.  External support is a reasonable alternative.

9. Five Levels of Writing Support at University of Michigan ELI  Regular university courses  No added tuition  Graded  Credit-bearing  Genre-based pedagogy (GBP): Students as language researchers  Discipline and student specific reference collections

10. Five Levels of Support at University of Michigan ELI  Academic Writing and Grammar  Novice writers who are in need of language support have limited academic writing experience believe good grammar equals good writing believe they need “rules”.  Our emphasis is on writing context, genres and sub- genres, trends, and tendencies.  We look at grammar as a matter of choices dependent upon what the author wants to get done.

11. Preparation and Support: Novices  Support may be decontextualized to a greater or lesser degree.  Decomposing the task environment into context-free features that the beginner can recognize without the desired skill.  Genre analysis is invaluable.  Students may have information, but lack an understanding of the contexts to which that information applies.  Students seek and try to employ “rules”—duplicate the model.

12. Five Levels of Support at University of Michigan ELI  Academic Writing: two semester sequence  Emphasis on sub-genres that ultimately contribute to writing empirical research papers  Greater emphasis on writing and language as a matter of choices and strategies to accomplish a goal  Discipline specific  One semester: short texts on topics in the students’ disciplines  Second semester: source based writing (literature reviews that create an argument and make a point, critiques of scholarship)

13. Preparation and Support: Advanced Beginner  Support can prompt an understanding of context  Authors in transition may notice or be prompted to notice examples of meaningful additional aspects of the situation or domain—genre awareness is developing.  After seeing a sufficient number of examples, authors learn to recognize these new aspects.  Approach to writing may still be an analytic application of “rules”, but may involve some consideration of context.

14. Five Levels of Support at University of Michigan ELI  Research Paper Writing  IMRD focus  Literature reviews, introductions, abstracts, results, discussion, methods, titles  Strategies for stance and engagement  Argumentation  Text analysis and discussion  Genre

15. Five Levels of Support at University of Michigan ELI  Research Paper Writing Options  A long literature review that can feed into a proposal or paper for publication  A complete research paper  A proposal

16. Preparation and Support: Competent Author  Emerging Understanding of Importance of Context  Contexts are not static.  As authors in transition recognize aspects of the situation or domain or genre that are important, they may become overwhelmed.  Authors may need support to distinguish relevant new aspects from less relevant ones.  Making these distinctions can result in better understanding and decision making.

17. Preparation and Support: Competent Author  Importance of Context  Contexts are dynamic.  Competent authors begin to recognize that there are far more writing situations and genres to be dealt with than can be identified in advance.  It is impossible to prepare a list of all the possible writing situations and genres that need to dealt with.  Authors need to determine for themselves what plan or perspective to employ without knowing whether they will be successful.

18. Preparation and Support: Competent Author  Importance of Understanding Context  “Rules” do not work.  Uncertainty can be a source of stress.  Success depends on the author’s choices.  “Correct” choices can boost confidence and satisfaction unknown to novices.  “Poor” choices can demoralize.

19. Five Levels of Support at University of Michigan ELI  Dissertation Writing and Writing for Publication  Students must be in their 3 rd year of a Ph.D. program.  Most are candidates.  Mix of candidates and pre-candidates works very well.

20. Five Levels of Support at University of Michigan ELI  Dissertation Writing and Writing for Publication  Students choose the genres and sub-genres to be covered.  Typical topics include: literature review, proposals, conference abstracts, IMRD, teaching philosophies, cover letters, CVs, dissertation abstracts

21. Preparation and Support: Competent Author  Importance of Understanding Context  Authors in transition are struggling.  They need to accept both positive emotions associated with success as well as negative emotions associated with failure.  A lack of emotional involvement” can lead to stagnation in development (Benner 1984).  Authors who adhere to application of “rules” will not move beyond the stage of competence.

22. Preparation and Support: Competent Author  To move on to the next level authors need to develop a tolerance for and sensitivity to changing contexts as well as develop strategies for dealing with them.

23. Preparation and Support: Proficient Author  Taking Responsibility  Proficient authors move away from “rules”.  Authors may understand their writing goals, but not how to achieve them due to a lack of experience.  Authors may see multiple choices, but have uncertainty as to which “move” to make.

24. Preparation and Support: Expert Author  Taking Ownership  Experts have a vast repertoire from which to choose.  They see what needs to be done and have had sufficient experience to determine which course of action should be followed.  Experts can decompose the task/genre into sub- tasks/sub-genres, each of which requires a specific action.

25. Preparation and Support: Proficient Author  Experts simply “know” based on vast amounts of experience.

26. Students Need Many Types of Support  Courses prior to dissertation writing so students can develop writing competence and confidence.  Genre-based pedagogy  Peer writing support  Dissertation boot camp

27. Food for Thought Cooper, A. and Bikowski, D. (2007). Writing at the graduate level: What tasks do professors actually require? Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 6(3), 206-221. Dreyfus, S.E. (2004). The five-stage model of adult skill acquisition. Bulletin of Science and Technology 24(3), 177-181.