1. S TEM C ELLS IB topic 2.1

2. M ULTICELLULAR O RGANISMS AND C ELL D IFFERENTIATION One of the functions that many cells retain is the ability to reproduce themselves In multicellular organisms, this allows the possibility of growth It also allows for the replacement of damaged or dead cells Multicellular organisms start out as a single cell The single cell has the ability to reproduce at a very rapid rate

3. C ELL D IFFERENTIATION The resulting cells then go through a differentiation process This produces all the required types of cells necessary for the well-being of the organism A red blood cell carries oxygen around the body A rod cell in the retina of the eye absorbs light & transmits a nerve impulse to the brain To carry out their functions, each cell types develops its own specialized structure

4. C ELL D IFFERENTIATION The number of different cell types is staggering The development of cells in different ways to perform different functions is call differentiation This involves each cell type using some of the genes in its nucleus, but not others When a gene is being used by a cell, we say that the gene is being expressed In simple terms, the gene is switched on and the information in it is used to make a protein or other gene product

5. A N E XTREME E XAMPLE A large family of genes in humans which carry the receptors that detect odorant chemicals (smells) These genes are only expressed in the cells in the skin inside the nose (called olfactory receptor cells) Each of these cells expresses just one of the gene and so makes one type of receptor to detect one type of odorant This is how we can distinguish between so many different smells Richard Axel & Linda Buck received the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 2004 for their work on this system

6. L IFE AS AN E MERGENT P ROPERTY Emergent properties are those that arise from the interaction of component parts The whole is greater than the sum of its parts For example: Consciousness is a property that emerges from the interaction of nerve cells in the brain Life itself is an emergent property

7. L IFE AS AN E MERGENT P ROPERTY “Life is not inherent in any single element constituting the living cell. DNA is not alive, neither are proteins, carbohydrates or lipids. Indeed, for a single short moment, a living cell and a dead cell may, upon analysis, be found to contain precisely the same catalogue of ‘dead’ chemicals in identical concentrations … What distinguishes the living from the dead? Nothing more than actions and interactions. Life emerges from inert matter as a consequence of metabolism, the continuous transfer of energy and information systematically packaged in cells in a way that leads to self-perpetuation. The complexity of dynamic behavior that generates metabolism, growth, and genetic inheritance is what we call life.” Excerpt from Tending Adam’s Garden: Evolving the Cognitive Immune Self by Irun Cohen

8. A C ELL ’ S A BILITY TO D IVIDE Some cells have a greatly, or even completely, diminished ability to reproduce once they’ve become specialized Nerve cells and muscle cells are examples of this type of cell Other cells, such as epithelial cells like skin, retain the ability to rapidly reproduce throughout their life The offspring of these rapidly reproducing cells then differentiate into the same cell type as the parent

9. W HAT ARE STEM CELLS ? H OW CAN THEY BE USED FOR MEDICAL BENEFIT ?

10. S TEM C ELLS Cells that retain their ability to divide and differentiate into various cell types At an early stage the whole of a human embryo consists of stem cells, but gradually the cells in the embryo become committed to differentiating in a particular way All the cells produced will differentiate in the same way and so they are no longer stem cells Small numbers of cells seem to remain as stem cells and are still present in the adult body Bone marrow, skin, and liver They give some human tissues considerable powers of regeneration and repair Stem cells in other tissues (brain, kidney, heart) only allow limited repair

11. S TEM C ELLS – R ESEARCH & T REATMENT There has been great interest in stem cells because of their potential for tissue repair and for treating a variety of degenerative conditions Promising research has been directed towards growing embryonic stem cells in culture so they could replace differentiated cells lost due to injury and disease This involves a process called therapeutic use of stem cells

12. T HERAPEUTIC U SES OF S TEM C ELLS Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease are caused by the loss of brain cells Multiple sclerosis and strokes are also caused by a loss of neurons/other cells in the nervous system It’s hoped that implanted stem cells could replace many of these lost brain cells Alleviate many of the symptoms Diabetes (type 1) – cells in the pancreas are not producing insulin It’s hoped that a stem cell transplant in this organ could have positive effects by creating insulin- secreting cells Spinal cord injury (Terra Incognita)

13. S TEM C ELL B REAK T HROUGH I N B REAST R ECONSTRUCTION

14. T YPES OF S TEM C ELLS Besides embryonic stem cells, there are tissue specific stem cells These cells reside in certain tissue types and can only produce new cells of that particular tissue The greatest success so far in therapeutic use of stem cells involves bone marrow transplants Hematopoietic stem cells (HS cells) Normally found in bone marrow; divide continually to produce new cells that differentiate into red and white blood cells Example: Blood stem cells have been introduced into humans to replace damaged bone marrow of some leukemia patients

15. E THICAL I SSUES & S TEM C ELL R ESEARCH Embryonic stem cells (pluripotent stem cells) This is because these cells come from embryos often obtained from labs carrying out in-vitro fertilization (IVF) Reproductive technology Woman is injected with FSH; stimulate egg production Several eggs are harvested surgically Eggs are mixed with sperm in culture dishes  fertilization Fertilized egg(s) are implanted into woman’s uterus unused healthy embryos can be frozen for later use Gathering embryonic stem cells involves the death of the embryo Opponents – taking a human life Proponents – this research could significantly reduce human suffering, and is, therefore, totally acceptable

16. E MBRYONIC VS A DULT S TEM C ELLS Embryonic Stem CellsAdult Stem Cells Easier to obtain than adult stem cells No embryo is destroyed Almost unlimited growth potential – much greater than adult stem cells The cells are fully compatible with the tissues of the adult, so no rejection problems occur, whereas embryonic tissue is genetically different from the patient receiving the tissue Less chance of genetic damage than with adult stem cells Greater capacity to differentiate into different cell types than adult stem cells Less chance of malignant tumors developing than with embryonic stem cells