1. Physical and Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood
Chapter 17
Physical and Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

2. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

3. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

4. Life Expectancy and Life Span
Life span – the upper boundary of life; the maximum number of years an individual can live.
The maximum life span of human beings is approximately 120 years of age.
Life expectancy – the number of years that will probably be lived by the average individual born in a particular year.
The life expectancy of individuals born today in the Canada is 79.9 years.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

5. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Centenarians
Today, there are 4,320 centenarians living in Canada.
It is projected that this number will increase to 45,000 by 2046.
Research reveals that many centenarians are quite healthy in their old age.
Centenarians are a robust group, as many have had difficult lives.
Such rapid growth in the older population will most likely lead to a variety of societal changes.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

6. Gender Differences in Longevity
Today, life expectancy for females is 81.4, males 75.7.
Beginning at age 45, females outnumber males, and the gap continues to grow.
By the time adults are 70–74 years of age, more than 53.4% of the population is female.
These differences are due to health attitudes, habits, lifestyles, and occupation.
Biological factors play a role, too, as females outlive males in virtually all species.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

7. The Young Old, the Old Old, and the Oldest Old
Late adulthood has the longest span of any period of human development—50–60 years.
Developmentalists thus distinguish between subperiods in this stage, although definite age boundaries are not yet agreed upon.
The young old are 65–74 years of age.
The old old are 75 years and older.
Some distinguish the oldest old as 85 years and older.
Many experts prefer to make the distinction based on functioning, rather than age.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

8. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
The Robust Oldest Old
The oldest old are much more likely to be female.
They have a much higher rate of morbidity and a greater incidence of disability than the young old.
They are much more likely to be living in institutions, less likely to be married, and more likely to have low educational attainment.
A substantial portion function effectively, and the majority continue to live in the community.
Forty percent say they have no activity limitation.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

9. Biological Theories of Aging
Cellular Clock Theory
Free-Radical Theory
Hormonal Stress Theory
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

10. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Cellular Clock Theory
Leonard Hayflick’s view that cells can divide a maximum of about 75–80 times and that, as we age, our cells become increasingly less capable of dividing.
Thus, Hayflick places the upper limit of the human life span at about 120 years.
Recent research has shown that telomeres are DNA sequences that cap chromosomes, and that each time a cell divides, telomeres become shorter and shorter.
Age-related telomere erosion has been found to be linked with an impaired ability to recover from stress and an increased rate of cancer formation.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

11. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Free-Radical Theory
States that people age because inside their cells normal metabolism produces unstable oxygen molecules known as free radicals.
These molecules ricochet around the cells, damaging DNA and other cellular structures.
This damage can lead to a range of disorders, including cancer and arthritis.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

12. Hormonal Stress Theory
Aging in the body’s hormonal system may lower resilience to stress and increase likelihood of disease.
With age, hormones stimulated by stress that flow through the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system remain elevated longer than when we were younger.
These prolonged, elevated levels of stress-related hormones are associated with increased risks for many diseases including heart disease and cancer.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

13. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

14. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
The Aging Brain
Recent research has shown that adults continue to grow new brain cells throughout their lives.
Even in late adulthood, the brain has remarkable repair capability.
Growth of dendrites has been observed to continue through the 70s.
Brain activity of older and younger people were compared; it was observed that older brains literally rewired themselves to compensate for losses.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

15. General Slowdown in Central Nervous System Functioning
A general slowing down of central nervous system functioning in middle adulthood increases in late adulthood.
The slowdown affects physical coordination and intellectual performance.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

16. Conclusions about Older Brains
It appears that aging brains can shift responsibilities for a given task from one region to another.
Neuroscientists believe the brain has a remarkable capacity to change and grow, even in old age.
Stimulating the brain with mental exercises may cause neurons to increase their dendritic branching.
These findings offer new possibilities for preventing and treating brain diseases such as Alzheimer’s and stroke.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

17. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Physical Appearance
The changes that take place in middle adulthood become more pronounced in late adulthood.
The changes are most noticeable in the form of facial wrinkles and age spots.
We get shorter when we get older.
Our weight usually drops after we are 60, most likely due to muscle loss, which causes us to look “saggy.”
(The Myths and Realities of Growing Old: “Have I Changed Since Age 20?”)
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

18. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Sensory Development
Vision
Hearing
Smell and Taste
Touch
Pain
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

19. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Vision
Any decline in vision that began in early or middle adulthood becomes more pronounced.
Night driving is particularly difficult.
Dark adaptation is slower.
Visual field becomes smaller.
A recent study discovered that sensory acuity, especially in vision, was related to whether and how well elderly adults bathed and groomed themselves, completed chores, engaged in intellectual activities and watched TV.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

20. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Other Vision Problems
Cataracts – cloudy, opaque areas in the lens of the eye that prevent light from passing through, causing blurred vision.
Glaucoma – a disease that involves a hardening of the eyeball because of fluid buildup in the eye.
Macular Degeneration – a disease involving deterioration of the retina.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

21. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Hearing
Hearing impairment may begin in middle age, but doesn’t become an impediment until late adulthood.
Seventy-five percent of individuals aged 75–79 experience some type of hearing problem.
Fifteen percent of those over 65 is legally deaf.
This hearing loss is usually due to the degeneration of the cochlea, the primary neural receptor for hearing in the inner ear.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

22. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Smell and Taste
Most older adults lose some of their sense of smell, taste, or both.
Smell and taste losses often begin around 60 years of age.
Many older adults often prefer highly seasoned foods to compensate for their diminished senses.
This may lead to eating more non-nutritious, highly seasoned junk food.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

23. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Touch and Pain
Studies have shown that with aging, individuals could detect touch less in the lower extremities than in the upper extremities.
For most older adults, this decline is not a problem.
Older adults are less sensitive to pain and suffer from it less than younger adults.
This can be harmful if it masks injury and illness that need to be treated.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

24. The Circulatory System
When heart disease is absent, the amount of blood pumped through the heart is the same regardless of an adult’s age.
Some experts argue that the healthy heart may even become stronger as we age through the adult years, with capacity increasing, not decreasing.
Illness, obesity, anxiety, stiffening of blood vessels, or lack of exercise may cause blood pressure to rise with age.
High blood pressure should be treated.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

25. The Respiratory System
Lung capacity drops 40% between the ages of 20 and 80, even without disease.
Lungs lose elasticity, the chest shrinks, and the diaphragm weakens.
Diaphragm-strengthening exercises can improve lung functioning.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

26. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Sexuality
In a study of more than 1,200 elderly people, almost 30% had participated in sexual activity in the past month.
In the absence of disease, sexuality can be lifelong, though aging does induce some changes.
Orgasm becomes less frequent in males, and more direct stimulation is needed for erection.
When intercourse is impaired by infirmity, closeness and sensuality needs persist.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

27. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

28. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Health Problems
Causes of Death in Older Adults
Arthritis
Osteoporosis
Accidents
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

29. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

30. Causes of Death in Older Adults
Heart Disease
Cancer
Stroke
Chronic Lung Diseases
Pneumonia
Influenza
Diabetes
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

31. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Arthritis
Inflammation of the joints accompanied by pain, stiffness, and movement problems.
Arthritis is especially common in older adults.
This disorder can affect hips, knees, ankles, fingers, and vertebrae.
There is no known cure for arthritis, but symptoms can be reduced by drugs, range-of-motion exercises, weight reduction, and joint replacement.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

32. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Osteoporosis
An aging disorder involving extensive loss of bone tissue.
The main reason many older adults walk with a marked stoop.
Women are especially vulnerable to osteoporosis, the leading cause of broken bones in women.
Afflicts two-thirds of women over age 60.
Related to deficiencies in calcium, vitamin D, estrogen depletion, and lack of exercise.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

33. Prevention and Treatment
Eat foods rich in calcium, get more exercise, and avoid smoking.
Estrogen replacement therapy may also be recommended for high-risk individuals, except those with a history of breast cancer.
Certain drugs can be used to reduce the risk.
Older women should also get bone density checks.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

34. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Accidents
Injuries resulting from a fall at home or during a traffic accident are common.
618 of every 100,000 people over the age of 65 fractured a hip.
Half of these adults die within 12 months, frequently from pneumonia.
One study showed an exercise program reduced the risk of falls in elderly adults.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

35. Exercise, Nutrition, and Weight
The Growing Controversy over Vitamins and Aging
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

36. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Exercise
Older adults are healthier and happier the more active they are.
In a study of over 17,000 men and women, sedentary participants were more than twice as likely to die during the 8-year study as moderately fit participants.
Another study showed that starting a moderately vigorous sports activity from the 40s through the 80s was associated with a 23% lower risk of death.
Gerontologists recommend strength training too.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

37. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Nutrition and Weight
Evidence shows food restriction in lab animals can increase life span.
Animals fed restricted diets live as much as 40% longer than animals given unlimited food access.
Diet restrictions also delay biochemical alterations that contribute to poorer health and aging.
Leaner men live longer, healthier lives.
Current research is exploring the link between body mass index and longevity in women.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

38. The Growing Controversy over Vitamins and Aging
Research shows antioxidants—vitamin C, vitamin E, betacarotene—help slow the aging process and improve the health of older adults.
Antioxidants counteract the cell damage caused by free radicals.
No evidence shows antioxidants can increase the life span, but some experts believe they can reduce one’s risk of becoming frail and sick in later years.
We still don’t know which vitamins should be given and in what doses.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

39. The Nature of Mental Health in Older Adults
Mental disorders make individuals increasingly dependent on the help and care of others.
Although mental disorders in older adults are a major concern, they do not have a higher incidence of mental disorders than younger adults.
Mental disorders make individuals increasingly more dependant on others.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

40. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Depression
Major depression is a mood disorder in which the individual is deeply unhappy, demoralized, self-derogatory, and bored.
The individual with major depression does not feel well, loses stamina easily, has a poor appetite, and is listless and unmotivated.
Depression is a treatable condition.
Major depression can result in suicidal tendencies.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

41. Dementia, Alzheimer’s Disease, and Related Disorders
Multi-infarct Dementia
Parkinson’s Disease
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

42. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Dementia
Dementia is a global term for any neurological disorder in which the primary symptoms involve a deterioration of mental functioning.
Individuals with dementia often lose the ability to care for themselves and may lose the ability to recognize familiar surroundings and people.
Over seventy types or causes of dementia have been identified.
It is estimated that 20% of individuals over the age of 80 have dementia.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

43. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Alzheimer’s Disease
Causes and Treatments
Early Detection of Alzheimer’s Disease
Progressive Decline
Caring for Individuals with Alzheimer’s Disease
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

44. About Alzheimer’s Disease
The most common form of dementia.
It is a progressive, irreversible disorder that is characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and eventually physical functioning.
As Alzheimer’s disease progresses, deterioration and shrinking of the brain occurs.
Approximately 240,000 people over the age of 65 in the Canada have Alzheimer’s disease.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

45. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Causes and Treatment
Efforts to identify the cause of Alzheimer’s have not yet been successful.
What scientists now believe is that Alzheimer’s disease is a complex unraveling of neural structure and function that likely involves many different molecular and cellular dimensions.
The disease involves a deficiency in acetylcholine, which plays an important role in memory.
The main drug used to treat Alzheimer’s disease works by blocking chemicals that ordinarily cut acetylcholine apart.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

46. Early Detection of Alzheimer’s Disease
Brain scans such as an MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) can detect changes in the brain that are fairly typical of early Alzheimer’s disease even before symptoms develop.
Certain spinal fluids give reasonably good clues of early signals of Alzheimer’s disease.
Recently a sophisticated urine test called the neural thread protein has predicted the occurrence of Alzheimer’s in some individuals two years before the symptoms appear.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

47. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Progressive Decline
There is a predictable, progressive decline in physical, cognitive, and social functioning when individuals have Alzheimer’s disease.
Once diagnosed, most patients live approximately 8 years.
They progress from early problems of memory loss and declining intellectual function to later stages in which hospitalization in a near vegetative state ensues.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

48. Caring for Individuals with Alzheimer’s Disease
There is a predictable, progressive decline in physical, cognitive, and social functioning when individuals have Alzheimer’s disease.
Once diagnosed, most patients live approximately 8 years.
They progress from early problems of memory loss and declining intellectual function to later stages in which hospitalization in a near vegetative state ensues.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

49. Multi-infarct Dementia
Involves a sporadic and progressive loss of intellectual functioning caused by repeated temporary obstruction of blood flow in cerebral arteries.
The result is a series of mini-strokes which the individual usually recovers from quickly.
Symptoms include confusion, slurring of speech, writing impairment, and numbness on one side of the face, arm, or leg.
Approximately 35–50% of people who have these attacks will have a major stroke within 5 years unless the underlying problems are treated.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

50. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Parkinson’s Disease
Parkinson’s disease is a chronic, progressive disease characterized by muscle tremors, slowing of movement, and partial facial paralysis.
It is triggered by degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons in the brain.
Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that is necessary for normal brain functioning.
Why the degeneration of the production of dopamine occurs is not known.
A drug called L-dopa is the main treatment of Parkinson’s disease.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

51. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Health Promotion
Care Options
Prescription Drug Use
Giving Options for Control and Teaching Coping Skills
Meeting the Mental Health Needs of Older Adults
Health Care Provision, the Older Adult, and Health Care Providers
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

52. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Care Options
Only about 7.3% of adults age 65 and over reside in a nursing home at any point in time.
Due to nursing home care costs , gerontologists believe alternatives need to be considered.
Alternatives include home health care, day-care centres, and preventive medicine clinics.
They are cheaper and less likely to engender feelings of depersonalization and dependency.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

53. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Prescription Drug Use
Seniors use more prescription drugs in Canada than any other single age group.
Inappropriate use of prescription drugs result in 30% of hospitalizations of people over 65 years.
50% of seniors do not take their medications as prescribed.
It is critical that care providers manage their medications.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

54. Giving Options for Control
Having a sense of personal control is found to be important both physically and psychologically.
Ellen Langer argues that it is extremely important for aging individuals to understand that they can choose the way they think.
She has shown one reason people act old is that they base their actions on mental images of stereotypic old people.
When people were induced to think of themselves as younger, they showed many outward changes and had a more positive outlook on life.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

55. Teaching Coping Skills
Being in control reduces stress and stress-related hormones.
Nursing home residents were given assertiveness training and learned time management skills.
Their subsequent levels of cortisol were greatly reduced and remained lower 18 months after training.
The residents were also healthier and had reduced need for medication compared with residents without training.
Training changed their behaviour and improved health.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

56. Meeting the Mental Health Needs of Older Adults
Some common mechanisms of change that improve the mental health of older adults are:
fostering a sense of control, self-efficacy, and hope
establishing a relationship with a helper
providing or elucidating a sense of meaning
promoting educative activities and development of skills
Psychologists must be encouraged to include more older adults in their client lists.
The elderly must be convinced that they can benefit from therapy.
Mental health care must be made affordable.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

57. Health Care Provision, the Older Adult, and Health Care Providers
People over 65 use physicians more than any other group, have more hospital admissions, and have generally longer stays.
Approximately 12% of people over the age of 65 receive Home Care.
Too often, health-care providers share society’s stereotypes and negative attitudes toward the elderly.
Older patients tend to take a less active role in medical encounters with health-care providers.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

58. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

59. The Multi-dimensional, Multi-directional Nature of Cognition
Cognitive Mechanics and Cognitive Pragmatics
Sensory/Motor and Speed-of-Processing Dimensions
Memory
Wisdom
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

60. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Cognitive Mechanics
The hardware of the mind; reflect the neurophysiological architecture of the brain developed through evolution.
Involve the speed and accuracy of the processes involving sensory input, visual and motor memory, discrimination, comparison, and categorization.
Due to the strong influence of biology, heredity, and health on cognitive mechanics, their decline with age is likely.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

61. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Cognitive Pragmatics
The culture-based software programs of the mind.
Include reading and writing skills, language comprehension, educational qualifications, professional skills, and also the type of knowledge about the self and life skills that help us to master or cope with life.
Because of the strong influence of culture on cognitive pragmatics, their improvement into old age is possible.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

62. Sensory/Motor and Speed-of-Processing Dimensions
The speed of processing information declines in late adulthood.
There is, however, considerable individual variation in this ability.
It is not clear that this slowdown affects our lives in substantial ways.
Studies indicate we may engage in compensatory behaviours, so as to not be hindered by the slowdown.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

63. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Memory
Episodic Memory
Semantic Memory
Cognitive Resources: Working Memory and Perceptual Speed
Explicit and Implicit Memory
Memory Beliefs
Noncognitive Factors
Conclusions about Memory and Aging
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

64. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Episodic Memory
The retention of information about the where and when of life’s happenings.
Younger adults have better episodic memory than older adults, even though older adults think that they can remember older events better than more recent events.
Researchers have consistently found that in older adults the older the memory, the less accurate it is.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

65. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Semantic Memory
A person’s knowledge about the world.
It includes a person’s fields of expertise, general academic knowledge of the sort learned in school, and “everyday knowledge.”
Semantic memory appears to be independent of an individual’s personal identity with the past.
For the most part, episodic memory declines more in older adults than semantic memory.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

66. Cognitive Resources: Working Memory and Perceptual Speed
Working memory is the concept currently used to describe short-term memory as a place for mental work.
Perceptual speed is the ability to perform simple perceptual-motor tasks such as deciding whether pairs of two-digit or two-letter strings are the same or different.
Researchers have found declines in working memory and perceptual speed during the late adulthood years.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

67. Explicit and Implicit Memory
Explicit or declarative memory – memory of facts and experiences that individuals consciously know and can state.
Implicit memory – memory without conscious recollection; it involves skills and routine procedures that are automatically performed.
Implicit memory is less likely to be adversely affected by aging than explicit memory.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

68. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Memory Beliefs
Research shows that people’s beliefs about memory play an important role in their actual memory.
What people tell themselves about their ability to remember matters.
Findings have shown a relationship between positive and negative beliefs about one’s memory and actual memory performance.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

69. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Noncognitive Factors
Positive aspects of these noncognitive factors are associated less with memory decline; they do not eliminate it.
Researchers have found that using more everyday life memory tasks in their studies reduces age decrements in memory but does not eliminate them.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

70. Conclusions about Memory and Aging
Some, but not all, aspects of memory decline in older adults.
The decline occurs primarily in episodic and working memory, not in semantic memory.
A decline in perceptual speed is associated with memory decline.
Successful aging does not mean eliminating memory decline, but reducing it and adapting to it.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

71. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Wisdom
Expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life that permits excellent judgment about important matters.
Focuses on life’s pragmatic concerns and human conditions.
Research shows no age differences in wisdom.
Wisdom involves solving practical problems.
Research indicates that older adults are quite competent in problem solving with regard to everyday types of situations.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

72. Education, Work, and Health: Links to Cognitive Functioning
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

73. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Education
More older adults are returning to college today to further their education.
Educational experiences are positively correlated with scores on intelligence tests and information processing tasks, such as memory.
Older adults seek more education to:
remain competitive in the workforce
learn about societal and technological changes
enhance their self-discovery
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

74. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Work
Successive generations have had work experiences that include a stronger emphasis on cognitive-oriented labour.
The increased emphasis on information processing jobs likely enhances an individual’s intellectual abilities.
One recent study linked substantive complex work with higher intellectual functioning in older adults.
Exposure to complex environments increases intellectual functioning throughout the life course.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

75. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.
Health
In a recent study, physical health and physical activity were positively related to cognitive performance in older adults.
K. Warner Schaie concluded that some diseases are linked to cognitive dropoffs, most likely due to the lifestyles of the individuals with diseases.
Overeating, inactivity, and stress are related to both physical and mental decay.
Walking or any other aerobic exercise appears to get blood and oxygen pumping to the brain, which may help people think more clearly.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

76. Promoting Cognitive Skills in Late Life
Possibly changes in cognitive activity patterns result in disuse and consequent atrophy of cognitive skills.
In the Victoria Longitudinal Study, when middle-aged and older adults participated in intellectually engaging activities it served to buffer them against cognitive decline.
The mental activities that likely benefit the maintenance of cognitive skills in older adults are reading books, doing crossword puzzles, and going to lectures and concerts.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

77. Religion and Spirituality in Later Adulthood
A recent study showed that individuals who said they rarely or never prayed had about a 50% greater risk of dying during the 6-year study compared with their counterparts who prayed or meditated at least once a month.
Possibly the lower incidence of death in these individuals occurred because prayer and meditation reduce stress and dampen the body’s production of stress hormones.
©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.