3. African Nations Gain Independence
Main Idea
After World War II, almost all countries in Africa gained independence from ruling European powers.
Reading Focus
What ideas and actions led to independence for British and French colonies?
Why did Portuguese and Belgian colonies have difficulty achieving independence?
What effect did apartheid have on the lives of black South Africans?

4. British and French Colonies
After 1945 European colonial powers began a process of decolonization—the withdrawal of colonial powers from their colonies and areas of influence. Great Britain and France led the way.
British colony of the Gold Coast, West Africa, first to achieve independence
African leaders established convention to demand greater participation in government
Ghana
Goal: to cooperate with British, gain influence peacefully
Less cooperative movement also brewing
1947, Kwame Nkrumah became leader of Convention People’s Party (CCP)
Two Movements
Nkrumah led strikes, demonstrations
British jailed him
Still transformed CCP into major political party
1951, British pressured into allowing national elections
National Elections

5. New Nation CCP swept Gold Coast national elections
Nkrumah continued to press for independence
1957, Britain granted Gold Coast full independence
Nkrumah became first prime minister of new nation, Ghana

6. Kenya
In the 1950s the Kenyan path to independence did not go as smoothly as it did in Ghana.
Ownership of land, possibility of independence led to conflict between white Kenyan farmers, native Kikuyu people
Farmers feared independence would cause them to lose large tracts of valuable cash crops in Kenyan highlands
Kikuyu wanted these ancestral homelands back
Conflict
Leader of Kenya’s nationalist movement, Jomo Kenyatta argued for Kikuyu’s right to land, its importance
Many Kikuyu farmers formed violent movement, Mau Mau
Group terrorized highlands, murdered anyone opposing them, including Africans who cooperated with white settlers
Mau Mau

7. British Regain Control
British eventually regained control of colony
British murdered, tortured members of Mau Mau movement
Late 1950s, British convinced to accept decolonization
1963, Kenya became independent nation
Jomo Kenyatta became first prime minister

9. French Africa Different Path Benefits in Relationship French Community
French African colonies followed different path toward independence
French goal had been to incorporate colonies into France itself
Prime Minister Charles de Gaulle tried to pursue goal after World War II
Benefits in Relationship
African leaders believed they should have greater opportunities for self-rule
However, rejected final break with France because they believed Africans could attain economic, cultural benefits from continued relationship
French Community
1958, de Gaulle called for referendum on continued union
Most colonies voted to join new organization, known as French Community
France granted most colonies of Community independence a few years later

10. How did Britain grant independence to its African colonies?
Find the Main Idea
How did Britain grant independence to its African colonies?
Answer(s): Britain granted independence to its colonies after they began nationalist movements.

11. Portuguese and Belgian Colonies
Transition to independence for Belgian, Portuguese colonies more difficult than for British, French
Belgians, Portuguese held on to colonies longer than any other European nations
Violence forced decolonization
Transition Difficult
After World War II, Belgian government agreed to prepare people of Belgian Congo for self-government
1950s, African nationalists in Congo demanded immediate self-government
1960, Belgians announced complete withdrawal; soon violence toward Belgian settlers, civil war erupted
Belgian Congo

12. Leaders Emerge in Portuguese Colonies
Portugal continued to hold on to colonies
Meanwhile, African leaders emerged in colonies of Angola, Portuguese Guinea, Mozambique
Leaders organized armies to fight for independence
Bloody Warfare in Portuguese Colonies
Long years of bloody warfare marked last decades of Portuguese rule
War, military coup in Portugal drained Portuguese economy; made it impossible to continue support of colonies
1974, Portugal withdrew completely from Africa

13. How did Africans in the Portuguese colonies achieve independence?
Summarize
How did Africans in the Portuguese colonies achieve independence?
Answer(s): African leaders organized armies to fight for independence; years of bloody warfare ended Portuguese rule.

14. South Africa Apartheid Racial Separation
In the early 1900s South Africa was run by white Afrikaners—descendants of the original Dutch settlers. Even though South Africa had received independence from Great Britain in 1910, nonwhites in South Africa were not free under the Afrikaner government.
1948, racial discrimination heightened when Afrikaner-dominated National Party began to run South African government
Instituted policy of apartheid, “apartness” in Afrikaner language
Apartheid
Apartheid policy divided into four racial groups: White, Black, Colored (mixed ancestry), Asian
Attempted to create greater separation between whites, nonwhites, impose harsh controls
Racial Separation
Apartheid laws banned interracial marriages, and placed further restrictions on African ownership of land and businesses.

15. Apartheid Laws Laws Harsh on Blacks Citizenship Denied
Apartheid laws especially harsh on blacks in South Africa
Required to carry passes, identity books
Also faced imprisonment if police found them in an area for more than 72 hours without pass
Laws Harsh on Blacks
Under apartheid, only white South Africans could vote, hold political office
Blacks made up nearly 75 percent of population, were denied South African citizenship
Restricted to certain occupations, very little pay
Citizenship Denied

16. Homelands Townships Further Segregation Citizenship Aliens
Apartheid placed limits on where blacks could live
Required to live in impoverished areas of cities called townships
Further Segregation
Restricted businesses allowed in townships, kept people poor
1950s, created rural “homelands” for tribes, groups
Citizenship
Did not include good farmland, resources
Used homelands as excuse for depriving blacks of citizenship
Aliens
Men forced to migrate without families to work in mines, factories, farms
Homeland policy made millions resident aliens in own country

20. What was apartheid, and how did it function?
Find the Main Idea
What was apartheid, and how did it function?
Answer(s): policy of separating whites and nonwhites and placing restrictions upon nonwhites; enforced by police, laws

21. Post-Colonial Africa Main Idea Reading Focus
Newly independent African nations struggled with poverty, conflict and ineffective governments. In recent years, some countries sought better government by holding democratic elections.
Reading Focus
What political challenges did Africans face after independence?
What economic and environmental challenges did Africans face after independence?
How did Africans revive their culture after independence?

22. Political Challenges
1950s–1960s, many former European colonies ruled by dictators
Some nations fell into civil war
1990s brought renewed hope with the return of democracy; end of the apartheid system in South Africa
Early 1900s, African National Congress formed in South Africa
ANC petitioned government, held peaceful protests against apartheid
1940s, younger, radical members joined, including Nelson Mandela
Protesting Apartheid
1952, Mandela organized campaign urging blacks in South Africa to break apartheid laws
1960, changed from peaceful philosophy after police killed demonstrators in Sharpeville
Change of Philosophy
The Sharpeville Massacre was a turning point in the anti-apartheid movement.

23. Protesting Apartheid Meeting Violence with Violence Soweto Uprising
Mandela, other ANC leaders decided to meet violence with violence
Government banned ANC, jailed Mandela
1976, major student protest movement in township of Soweto
Soweto Uprising
Soweto Uprising set off by decree for black schools to teach Afrikaans—language of white South Africans
Police killed protesting student; peaceful march turned into revolt
Trade Sanctions
Police crushed uprising, but over 600 killed, 4,000 wounded
ANC fought to end apartheid; violence erupted in many black townships
International community imposed trade sanctions on South Africa

24. Democracy in South Africa
1990, President F.W. de Klerk legalized ANC, began negotiations to enact new constitution, end apartheid
Released Mandela from prison
Lifted long-standing ban on African National Congress
De Klerk also abolished homelands, held South Africa’s first democratic elections
ANC swept elections
Mandela became first black president of a democratic South Africa

25. Bribery and Corruption
Military Dictatorships
End of 1960s, nearly all newly independent African nations adopted one-party system
Single political party controls government
Elections rarely competitive
Opposition parties outlawed in many countries
Dictators ruled many nations, maintained power through patronage, giving loyal followers well-paid positions in government
One–Party System
Some corrupt officials required bribes for government contracts, licenses
Also ran government enterprises for personal profit
New generation of dictators robbed countries of wealth
Mobutu Sese Seko, dictator of Congo, amassed personal fortune of about $5 billion, while his people fell into poverty
Bribery and Corruption

26. Ethnic Conflicts and Civil War
When the European powers divided Africa into colonies, preexisting political units were not maintained.
After independence, rival ethnic groups competed for control, some by destructive civil wars
1967, Igbo-speaking group of eastern Nigeria proclaimed independent state of Biafra
Bloody civil war erupted; 2 million died from fighting, another 2 million from starvation
Ethnic Conflicts
1992, civil war, drought led to suffering in Somalia
Hundreds of thousands of Somalis died when warring militias stole food sent from international relief agencies
1990s, tensions between Hutu, Tutsi erupted in violence
1994, 1 million Tutsi, moderate Hutus massacred in Hutu-led government genocide
Civil Wars

27. Democracy for Some Elections Results
Despite conflicts, war throughout late 1900s, many African countries still dictatorships
Cold War: U.S., Soviets gave large amounts of money to dictators friendly to their side
Cold War ended, money dried up; weakened some dictators’ governments
Many Africans saw weakness as opportunity to create democratic governments, demanded elections
By 2005, more than 30 African countries had abandoned one-party systems, held elections
Elections
Election results mixed
Some former dictators resorted to fraud, intimidation to win elections
Others elected because people preferred them to alternatives
Results

29. Why did most African states adopt a one-party system?
Draw Conclusions
Why did most African states adopt a one-party system?
Answer(s): U.S. and Soviet Union each provided large amounts of money to dictators friendly to their side.

30. Economic and Environmental Challenges
After achieving independence, many African nations faced economic challenges that came with their new status. In addition, Africans had to combat the spread of disease and environmental problems.
After independence most African nations’ economies fragile
Depended on only one, two exports for support
Struggling Economies
African nations not industrialized, depended on farming, mining raw materials
Example: Ghana depended on cocoa; Nigeria, oil
Farming, Mining
For loans, turned to international organizations, like World Bank; bad planning, corrupt leaders left nations with huge debts, no infrastructure
Development Loans

31. Disease
African nations also challenged by management of deadly diseases
Malaria continues to be one of most common causes of death today
1980s, new disease, acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) spread rapidly throughout Africa
AIDS
HIV virus that causes AIDS weakens body’s immune system, results in death
Social costs in sub-Saharan Africa staggering; millions of orphaned children because parents died from AIDS
Only small percentage of infected Africans receiving AIDS treatment

32. Environmental Challenges Desertlike Conditions
Desertification
Scarcity of fertile farmland, pastures for livestock challenge for many Africans today
Farmers must plant crops in poor soil
Herders have to graze animals in extremely dry regions
Environmental Challenges
Result: soil in these areas dries out, natural grasses cannot grow
Sahara, Sahel deserts expanding due to desertification, spread of desertlike conditions
Desertification contributes to cycles of drought, famine that plague many African countries today
Desertlike Conditions

33. Identify Cause and Effect
What causes desertification in Africa?
Answer(s): planting crops in poor soil and grazing animals in dry areas, causing soil to dry out even more

34. Language and Literature
Revival of African Culture
In spite of the challenges African countries have faced since independence, Africans have experienced a cultural revival.
A new generation of African writers, artists, and musicians has emerged to establish a powerful African identity.
During colonial rule Africans preserved culture, used as means of expressing dissatisfaction with colonial rule
Many East Africans continued to study Swahili language
Language and Literature
Early 1960s, after independence, Swahili became national language in Kenya, Tanzania
Swahili writers maintained strong tradition of poetry, plays, novels
Change of Philosophy
Meanwhile a new type of African literature developed in the French-speaking colonies of West Africa.

35. Censorship, Harassment
Revival of African Culture
1930s, group of African, Caribbean students living in Paris founded negritude movement
Writings rejected European culture, focused on African culture, identity
After independence, African writers shifted from criticism of European colonialism to criticism of African leaders
Changes in Literature
Many writers faced censorship, harassment by African governments they ridiculed
Writers like Wole Soyinka spent time in prison for opposing Nigerian government
Other African writers fled Africa to escape possible imprisonment
Censorship, Harassment

36. Art, Music, and Dance Tradition Blending Styles
Traditional arts like sculpture, music, dance also became new means of expressing African identity
Artists began to produce traditional pieces like masks, musical instruments, sculptures carved from wood, cast in bronze
Artists incorporated new ideas, materials into work, revival of African art with new vitality, creativity—highly valued on world market today
Musicians traditionally played to honor history, mark special occasions
Traditional dances performed to celebrate specific events, special ceremonies
Tradition
1960s, began to blend traditional African with Western music styles
Used common Western instruments in addition to African
1980s, Afro-Pop music became popular; many African musicians internationally known today
Blending Styles

37. What subject did many African writers focus on after independence?
Find the Main Idea
What subject did many African writers focus on after independence?
Answer(s): criticism of African leaders

38. Nationalism in North Africa and the Middle East
Main Idea
The rise of nationalism in North Africa and the Middle East led to independence for some countries and to conflicts with the West.
Reading Focus
How did independence come to French North Africa?
What events led to the creation of Israel?
How did nationalism cause changes in Egypt and Iran?

39. French North Africa Morocco and Tunisia Independence
After World War II, France faced growing nationalist movements in its North African protectorates of Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria.
Nationalist campaigns for independence began to grow in early, mid-1900s in both countries
Attempts by France to crack down on movements led to increasing unrest, demonstrations, guerrilla wars
Meanwhile Algeria also struggling for independence
Morocco and Tunisia
Algeria home to large French settler population, was more important to the French
French government concluded it could not fight guerrilla wars in Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia at same time
Negotiated with nationalist leaders in Morocco, Tunisia
1956, both countries granted independence
Independence

40. Algeria Algeria National Liberation Front
1830, France first took control of some areas in Algeria
1950s, more than 1 million European settlers in area, owned best land, dominated economy, had grip on political power
National Liberation Front
1954, group of Algerian nationalists formed National Liberation Front (FLN)
FLN began campaign of armed attacks against French targets
French responded with mass arrests, raids on Muslim towns
Attacks on Settlers, Reprisals
Next year FLN directly targeted French settlers; attacks killed more than 100 people in one city
French forces, groups of settlers responded by attacking Muslims; between 1,200 and 12,000 Muslims killed in reprisal attacks

41. French Responses Battle of Algiers Change in Government
Attacks set pattern for deadly war in Algeria—FLN targeted French civilians, French attacked Muslim population
FLN launched campaign of bombings, assassinations at civilians, military in Algiers
French responded with harsh counterterrorism campaign, torturing suspected FLN members
Summer 1957, FLN largely defeated, but war not over
Battle of Algiers
French settlers in Algiers increasingly angry over perceived lack of support from French government
May 1958, French troops, mob of settlers seized control in Algiers, demanded change of government in Paris
Demands met; Charles de Gaulle appointed prime minister in June 1958
De Gaulle seen as strong supporter of settlers of Algeria
Change in Government

42. De Gaulle
De Gaulle hoped to satisfy both French settlers, Algerian nationalists
Wanted to give Algeria limited degree of self-government
Faced violent reaction from French settlers, who did not want France to give up any control
Violent reaction also from nationalists, wanted full independence
De Gaulle decided French rule could not be maintained in Algeria
February 1961, opened peace talks with FLN
1962, signed agreement granting Algeria independence

43. Contrast
How was the struggle for independence in Algeria different from the struggle in Morocco and Tunisia?
Answer(s): The French government negotiated with nationalist leaders in Morocco and Tunisia and allowed them independence, but fought the FLN to keep control of Algeria.