1. Unifying Italy Although the people of the Italian peninsula spoke the same language, they had not experienced political unity since the Roman times. By the early 1800s Italian patriots were determined to build a new, united Italy. Under the Congress of Vienna, Austria controlled northern Italy, the Hapsburg monarchs ruled various other Italian states, and the French Bourbons were put in charge of Naples and Sicily.

2. Between 1820 and 1848 nationalist revolts exploded across the region – each time Austria sent troops to crush the rebels. Under the shrewd leadership of Count Camillo Cavour - appointed prime minister in 1852, and Giuseppe Garibaldi – a long time nationalist, Italy was united in 1861 with Victor Emmanuel II its king. Later wars would add Rome and Venitia. Though united, strong regional divisions between the north and south, as well as disputes with the Catholic Church served to impede growth. Growth did come with industrialization in northern Italy by 1900, which saw a population explosion and emigration to the Americas.

3. Garibaldi Brings Unity Giuseppe Garibaldi—leads nationalists who conquer southern Italy Cavour convinces Garibaldi to unite southern Italy with Sardinia Garibaldi steps aside, allowing the king of Sardinia to rule Control of Venetia and Papal States finally unites Italy

5. Nationalism Threatens Old Empires In Eastern and Central Europe, the Austrians and Ottoman Turks ruled lands that included diverse ethnic groups. Nationalist feelings among these subject peoples contributed to tensions building across Europe.

6. Austria Of its 50 million people in the mid- 1800s, fewer that a quarter were German-speaking Austrians, and almost half belonged to different Slavic groups including Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, Ukrainians, Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. Under a new leader, Francis Joseph, and inspired by 1848 revolts, limited reforms were made. These reforms failed to satisfy Hungary in their calls for independence. In 1867 the dual monarchy of Austria- Hungary was formed; they were separate states, but would share ministries of finance, defense, and foreign affairs. Ottomans After the independence of Serbia and Greece earlier, various other groups staged revolts against the Ottomans. By the mid-1800s European powers had begun to see the Ottomans as weak, referring to them as “the sick man of Europe”. Eagerly they scrambled to divide up the lands; Russia pushed south, Austria-Hungary pushed west into Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Britain and France set their sights on lands in the Middle East and North Africa. A complex web of competing interests developed in the region between regional and European powers, leading to what many would call the region as the “Balkan powder keg.

7. Russia: Reform and Reaction By 1815, Russia was not only the largest, most populace nation in Europe but also a great power. However, despite efforts by Peter and Catharine to westernize Russia, it remained economically undeveloped. Under Alexander II the serfs were freed (emancipated) from the land, freeing them to move to the growing cities for work in Russian industries. In the early and mid-1800s liberals and radicals created turmoil that culminated in the assassination of Alexander II in March of 1881. His son, Alexander III responded with a harsh backlash, suppressing the cultures of non-Russian peoples through persecutions and pogroms.

8. Russia: Reform and Reaction Under Nicholas II, Russia entered the industrial age in the 1890s with railroads and industry. Poor conditions saw Marxist ideas gain popularity. Following the defeat of Russia to Japan in the Russo-Japanese wars of 1904-5, as well as “Bloody Sunday” that saw hundreds dead at the Czar’s Winter Palace on January 22, 1905, discontent exploded all over Russia. By 1914 Russia was still an autocracy, but one simmering with unrest.