1. QUESTIONS 1. A dinosaur extinction theory suggests that massive heating of the Earth's atmosphere in the path of a falling asteroid would have led to extremely acid rain, killing the land vegetation and hence the dinosaurs' food supply. What acid would have been involved?

2. POLLUTION & HEALTH

4. MORBIDITY: refers to the state of being diseased or unhealthful. Morbidity refers to the incidence of ill health in a population - expressed as a probability of illness or similar metric MORTALITY: is the state of being mortal (having a finite life). Mortality refers to the incidence of death in a population - expressed as number of deaths per 1000 individuals per year SOME DEFINITIONS…

5. SOME EFFECTS… ACUTE: irritation to the eyes, nose and throat, and upper respiratory infections such as bronchitis and pneumonia, headaches, nausea, and allergic reactions. Short-term air pollution can aggravate the medical conditions of individuals with asthma and emphysema CHRONIC: respiratory disease, lung cancer, heart disease, and damage to the brain, nerves, liver, or kidneys. Continual exposure to air pollution affects the lungs of growing children and may aggravate or complicate medical conditions in the elderly. COSTS: healthcare, lost productivity in the workplace, and human welfare bold = included in Lave and Seskin, 1970 study

6. WAYS THIS IS STUDIED… EPIDIOLOGICAL STUDIES: mortality and morbidity rates (often from governments), need to classify cause of death or control for other variables (eg. smoking habits, occupational exposure, genetics, etc.)  can fail to find significant relationships or find spurious ones due to unmeasured variables  must find a relationship that is so strong that it is extremely unlikely that missing variables could be the cause EPISODIC RELATIONSHIPS: relate daily/weekly mortality (or mobidity) rates to coincident indices of air pollution  problem: air pollution usually more subtle (someone killed during an air pollution event likely gravely ill)  also need to control for other factors (eg. absences from Monday during an air pollution event might be related to weekend activities, not air pollution health impacts) Tools: statistical analysis, multiple regressions, thorough uncertainty and significance analyses

7. HARVARD SIX CITIES STUDY Cohort study: 8111 adults followed from 1974-1991 (annual surveys) [Dockery et al., 1993, NEJM] Associated fine-particulate pollution with excess mortality. No observable threshold.

8. AMERICAN CANCER SOCIETY: PM EFFECTS Cohort Study: 1.2M participants in American Cancer Society tracking 1982-1998 ~1/2 linked with air pollution data for metropolitan areas in the U.S. Each 10-μg/m 3 elevation in fine particulate air pollution was associated with approximately a 6%, and 8% increased risk of cardiopulmonary, and lung cancer mortality. [Pope et al., 2002, JAMA] Mortality Relative Risk (RR) Ratio Associated With 10-μg/m 3 Differences of PM 2.5 Concentrations

9. REDUCED LIFE EXPECTANCY DUE TO PM [Pope et al., 2009, NEJM] A decrease of 10 μg/m 3 in the concentration of fine PM was associated with an estimated increase in mean life expectancy of 0.61 years

10. OZONE CORRELATED WITH RESPIRATORY HOSPITAL ADMISSIONS Episodic study: acute respiratory health effects at 168 hospitals in Ontario (1983-1988) 5% of respiratory hospital admissions in May-Aug associated with ozone [Burnett et al., 1994, ER] Adjusted admissions (binned by decades of ozone)

11. MAIN ISSUES WITH HEALTH-POLLUTION STUDIES 1.Controlling for other variables (intensive effort required to get true picture of lifestyle and impacts) 2.Understanding cause of death (particularly how to get information once someone in a cohort study has passed away!) 3.Effort required for long-term cohort studies 4.Approximating exposure with ambient monitoring networks  Working more on personal exposure monitoring 5.Getting detailed information on size, composition of particles and how they affect health 6.Scaling up! Assuming all populations respond alike (economically, environmentally, racially)

12. APPLICATION OF EPIDIOMIOLOGICAL STUDIES: INVESTIGATING THE LINK BETWEEN RISING CO 2 AND AIR POLLUTION MORTALITY [Jacobson, 2008]  T leads to increases in O 3  H 2 O increases O 3, except in low NOx conditions Found that pre-industrial to present day increase in T (~ 1K) and water vapour (~1 ppb) over US, led to an increase of 415 deaths/yr due to O 3 exposure in the US (8500 dealth/yr worldwide). Previous studies estimate up to 15,500 deaths/yr due to 1 ppb change in O 3 Pre-industrial to present-day population weighted 8-hr  O3 = 0.72 ppb  y= health effect change (death rate)  x=mixing ratio change  =fractional increase in risk per unit  x y o = baseline health effect rate P=population exposed to a min threshold [Ostro et al., 2006]

13. IMPACT OF BLACK CARBON EMISSION REDUCTIONS ON HUMAN MORTALITY Estimate that halving global anthropogenic BC emissions avoids 157 000 annual premature deaths globally, mostly near the source region (esp. Asia). [Anenberg et al., 2011] AF=attributable factor RR=relative risk  X=change in PM2.5  =concentration response factor yo=baseline mortality rate Avoided deaths for halving emissions

14. GLOBAL HEALTH INDICES FROM SATELLITE OBSERVATIONS Multipollutant Air Quality Health Index (AQHI): [Stieb et al., 2008] AQHI = 0.09 x NO 2 (ppb) + 0.05 x PM 2.5 (ug/m 3 ) + 0.05x O 3 (ppb) ~ excess mortality risk (%) [Randall Martin, Dalhousie] NO 2 and O 3 from OMI, PM 2.5 estimates from MODIS/MISR