1. Studying Human Sexuality
Chapter Two
Studying Human Sexuality

2. Sex, Advice Columnists, and Pop Psychology
The sex information/advice genre seeks to:
Inform—transmit information that is factual and accurate
Entertain—attract audiences through hosts’ personalities as well as high-interest or bizarre material
Primary purpose is to sell magazines or increase ratings of TV shows.
Often includes moral judgments and may be superficial in disseminating information
Use social science and psychiatry to give authority, even though the commentator is not an authority on the subject matter.

3. Use and Abuse of Statistics
Popular media may summarize social science research in an oversimplified or distorted manner
Sensationalize findings
Over generalize results of research
Report statistics that agree with widely-held preconceptions
Popular media may not emphasize the importance of replication

4. Thinking Critically about Sex
Basic scientific principles require a commitment to objectivity
observation of reality while excluding researchers’ feelings or beliefs
Subjectivity is to be avoided
Difficult to achieve especially in the area of sexuality
Sexuality can bring out powerful emotions and promote egocentric and ethnocentric thinking

5. Value Judgments: Limitations
Example: “College students should be in a committed relationship before they have sex”.
Does not tell us what motivates people
Does not tell us how frequently people behave in a given way
Does not tell us how people feel
Only tell us how we feel, and are subjective statement(s).
Objective statements describe actual behavior.

6. Value Judgments vs. Objectivity
Value judgments only reveal the thoughts or feelings of one person
Objectivity describes reality
Objective positions can be tested
Cultural relativity requires that we examine appropriateness within the cultural norms where it exists

7. Value Judgments vs. Objectivity
Value judgments imply how a person ought to behave
Objective statements describe how people actually behave
Value judgments cannot be empirically evaluated
Objective statements can be empirically evaluated

8. Opinions, Biases, and Stereotypes Interfere with the Pursuit of Knowledge
Opinions are unsubstantiated beliefs or conclusions according to an individual’s personal thoughts. Opinions reflect personal values or biases.
Biases are personal leanings or inclinations. Biases allow us to select information that supports our own personal views and ignoring the information that does not.
Stereotypes are sets of overgeneralized beliefs about an individual, a group, or an idea, etc.

9. Opinions, Biases, and Stereotypes Interfere with the Pursuit of Knowledge
Stereotype examples:
Old people cannot enjoy sex like young people.
Gay men are good interior decorators.
Lesbian women hate men
Men love women for sex, women have sex with men for love.

10. Stereotypes
Stereotypes structure knowledge by managing how we process knowledge – what we see, what we notice, what we remember.
A Stereotype is a type of schema. A schema is a way of organizing information which often underlies stereotypes
Sexual stereotyping is often used to justify discrimination or social groups
Women
Poor people
African Americans, Latino/as, Asian Americans
Gay men, lesbians, bisexuals, transgender people

11. Stereotypes Again, stereotypes structure our knowledge by shaping:
What we see
What we notice
What we remember
How we explain things
Ashleigh Brilliant - “ Seeing is believing. I wouldn’t have seen it if I hadn’t believed it.”
We see what we expect to see and ignore what we do not expect or want to see.

12. Common Fallacies: Egocentrism and Ethnocentrism
Fallacy: an error in reasoning that undermines our understanding of a subject
Egocentric fallacy: the belief that our own personal experience and values are generally held by others
Ethnocentric fallacy: the belief that one’s own ethnic group, nation, or culture’s values and customs are innately superior to others’

13. Attitudes and Behavior
Attitude: a predisposition a person has to act, think, or feel in certain ways, attitudes are built from knowledge (cognitive and experiential) and belief systems
Behavior: the way a person acts
Behavior does not always predict attitude and vice versa
Frequent discrepancies exist between the two on individual and cultural levels and can result in confusion

14. Egocentrism and Ethnocentrism
Often occur in our consideration of different ethnic groups
Transmitted from one generation to another
Prevent understanding from a culturally relative position
Oscar Wilde – “Morality is simply the attitude we adopt towards people we personally dislike.”

15. Sex Research Methods
Scientific Method: the method by which a hypothesis is formed from impartially gathered data and tested empirically.
Induction: drawing a general conclusion from specific facts
Seeks to describe the world rather than to evaluate or judge it

16. Research Concerns Ethical Methodological
Concerns use of human beings as subjects of research
Methodological
Concerns center on information-gathering techniques and accuracy
A representative sample of people is necessary to draw accurate conclusions

17. Ethical Issues Informed consent Protection from harm
Full disclosure of purpose, risk, benefits
Agreement to participate may be withdrawn
Protection from harm
Emotional distress must be avoided
Identity of subjects must be confidential

18. Sampling
Sample: a portion of a larger group of people are observed or studied
Inferences are made to the larger group
Good samples are:
Random
Representative
Unbiased

19. Limitations of Samples Restrict Generalizations
Depend on volunteers or clients
Takes place at universities or colleges with student volunteers
Some ethnic groups are underrepresented
Gay men, lesbian women, bisexual and transgendered people may not be publicly identified

20. Clinical Research
An in-depth examination of an individual or group that comes to a specialist for assistance with disorders and problems
Limited by an emphasis on pathological behavior
Shaped by cultural definitions of what is pathological (ex. in the 19th century masturbation was considered pathological)

21. Survey Research Questionnaires Interviews Internet Survey
Administered quickly
Forced choice allows many formats
Interviews
Allow more information to be gathered
Allow subjects to guide topics
Internet Survey
More individuals may be reached, even in remote areas
Participants may be higher SES groups
Sexual diaries
Collect richer information
May work well with some subjects but not all

22. Survey Research Limitations
Subjects may report self behavior with bias
Interviewers may collect information with a bias
Subjects may be embarrassed in an interview
Accuracy of subjects’ memory fades as time passes
Difficult for subjects to accurately estimate factors such as how long sexual encounters last

23. Observational Research
The researcher unobtrusively observes and makes notes about people’s behavior
Serious ethical issues in observing sexual behavior without subjects’ knowledge or consent
Known observation generally affects behavior

24. Participant Observation
The researcher participates in the behaviors which she or he is studying
Used frequently by anthropologists
Is sex research controversial because it compromises objectivity?

25. Experimental Research
The systematic manipulation variables to examine the effect on behavior. This research enables the researcher to isolate a single factor under controlled circumstances to determine its influences.
Independent variables: factors that can be manipulated and changed by the experimenter
Dependent variables: factors that are likely to be affected by changes in the independent variable
Correlation Variables – determine the relationship of two or more variables

26. An Example of Experimental Research
Examine effect of various amounts of alcohol on sexual arousal
Alcohol—independent variable
Plethysmograph measurement of arousal—dependent variable
Causal effect demonstrated

27. The Sex Researchers
In 19th century, Western sexuality began to be studied from a scientific framework
Fascinated with “pathologies” of sex: fetishism, sadism, masturbation, homosexuality
Since that time, a liberalizing trend in our thinking about sexuality
20th century researchers viewed sexuality more positively

28. The Sex Researchers
Three themes evident in later 20th century sex researchers’ work:
Belief that sexual expression is essential to an individual’s well being
Desire to broaden the range of legitimate sexual activity, including homosexuality
Belief that female sexuality is equal to male sexuality

29. Richard von Krafft-Ebing (1840-1902)
Psychopathia Sexualis (1886):
A collection of the case histories of fetishists, sadists, masochists, and homosexuals
Attributed variations in Victorian sexuality to “hereditary taint,” “moral degeneracy,” and masturbation
Brought public attention to sexual behaviors that had never been documented

30. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) Dramatically impacted Western ideas
Sexuality begins at birth with five-stage development:
Oral stage (birth to 1 year)
Anal stage (age 1-3)
Phallic stage (age 3-5)
Latency stage (age 6-puberty)
Genital stage (puberty onward)

31. Sigmund Freud: Phallic stage (“The Critical Stage”)
Oedipal Complex: Boy develops sexual desires for mother and fears father
Castration anxiety: Fears his father will cut off his penis: castration anxiety
Electra complex: Girl develops sexual desire for father and fears mother
Penis envy: Girls never acquire the “lost penis” and therefore fail to develop an independent character like that of boys
By age 6, boys and girls resolve their complexes by relinquishing their desires for their parents and identifying with their same-sex parent

32. Sigmund Freud: Impact
Freud was pioneering in commitment to science and explorations of the unconscious
Over the past generation, his influence among American sex researchers has dwindled
Lack of empiricism
Inadequate description of female development
Questions of relevance to contemporary society
In the field of sex research, his work is now primarily of historical interest

33. Havelock Ellis ( )
One of the first modern affirmers of sexuality
Studies in the Psychology of Sex ( )
Pointed out the relativity of sexual values
Appealed to case studies as well as studies in animal behavior, anthropology, and history
Challenged view that masturbation was abnormal
Documented existence of women’s sexual desires
Reevaluated homosexuality as a congenital condition

34. Alfred Kinsey (1894-1956) The Kinsey Reports
Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948)
Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953)
Statistical documentation of American sexual behavior
Showed a significant discrepancy between public standards and actual standards of sexual behavior

35. Alfred Kinsey: Impact (video)
Sexual Diversity and Variation
Extraordinary diversity in behaviors of subjects
Many subjects (e.g. 50% of men) had sexual experiences with members of the same-sex
Reevaluation of Masturbation
Important for women
Harmless
Pleasurable

36. Alfred Kinsey: Controversy
Same sex behavior
Labels of “heterosexual” and “homosexual” were inadequate ways of understanding sexual behavior
Devised the “Kinsey Scale”
Rejection of normal/abnormal dichotomy
Sexual differences are a matter of degree, not kind
Became an advocate of the tolerance
Decline of society

37. Kinsey’s Scale from 0 to 6

38. Alfred Kinsey: Criticisms
Statistical methodology: unrepresentative sampling
Emphasis on quantification of sexual behavior
Rejection of the psychological dimension (reducing behavior to genital activity)

39. William Masters (1915-2001) and Virginia Johnson (1925-)
Human Sexual Response (1966)
Detailed the sexual response cycles of hundreds of male and female research subjects
Combined clinical observation with direct measurement of genital arousal using electronic devices

40. Masters and Johnson: Outcomes
Similarity of male and female sexual responses
Women achieve orgasms via clitoral stimulation
Legitimized female masturbation

41. Masters and Johnson: Outcomes
Human Sexual Inadequacy (1970)
Argued that sexual problems were not the result of neuroses or personality disorders
Rather, lack of information, poor communication, or relationship conflict contributed
Used behavioral therapy to treat sexual problems with great success

42. Contemporary Research Studies
Several large, national, or multi-site sexuality related studies have recently been conducted
The National Health and Social Life Survey (1994)
The Youth Risk Behavior Survey (biannual)
The Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (annual)
The National Survey of Family Growth (periodic)
College Alcohol Study (every few years)
Community Intervention Trial for Youth Project

43. Contemporary Research Studies
Large scale national sexuality related studies
Smaller scale studies
Difficulties due to political and social climate
Restricted funding

44. The National Health and Social Life Survey 1994
Americans are largely exclusive.
On an average, Americans have sex about once a week.
Extramarital sex is the exception, not the rule.
Most Americans have fairly traditional sexual behaviors.
Homosexuality is not as prevalent as originally believed.
Orgasms appear to be the rule for men and the exception for women.
Forced sex and the misperception of it remain critical problems.
Three percent of adult Americans claim never to have had sex.

45. The National Survey of Family Growth 2002/2008
Periodically, the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) conducts the National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG) to collect data on marriage, divorce, contraception, infertility, and health of women and infants in the United States.
See results – pg , text

46. The Youth Risk Behavior Survey 2009
The Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS), conducted biannually by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), measures the prevalence of six categories of health risk behaviors among youths through representative national, state, and local surveys using a self-report questionnaire. Sexual behaviors that contribute to unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, are among those assessed.
See Results – p. 53, text

47. National College Health Assessment
Since year 2000, every fall and spring term the American College Health Association has conducted research at colleges and universities throughout the United States to assess students’ health behaviors and their perceptions of the prevalence of these behaviors among their peers. Areas covered are alcohol, tobacco, and other drug use; sexual health, weight, nutrition, and exercise; mental health, injury prevention, personal safety, and violence.
See Results – p. 54, text (see graph, next slide)

48. Figure Percentage of College Students Who Reported Having Oral Sex, Vaginal Sex, and Anal Intercourse in the Past 30 Days and the Percentage Reporting Using a Condom or Other Protective Barrier, Spring 2012

49. The National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior
The most expansive nationally representative study of sexual and sexual-health behaviors, the National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior (NSSHB), was published in 2010, 16 years following the first nationally representative study, the 1994 National Health and Social Life Survey described earlier. The NSSHB, a study based on Internet reports from 5,865 American adolescents and adults aged 14–94, provides a needed and valuable updated overview of Americans’ sexual behavior and reveals an increase in sexual diversity since the NHSLS.
See Results – p. 55, text

50. Emerging Research Perspectives
Feminist scholarship
Focus on gender issues
Examines distribution of power in sexual relationships
Gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender
Focus on personal experience
Examines social and psychological components

51. Feminist Scholarship Principles
Gender is significant
Female experience devalued
Power is critical in relationships
Ethnic diversity must be addressed

52. Important GLBT researchers across time
Karl Ulrichs ( )– Men Who are attracted to men represent a third sex (Urnings), and are born with this attraction. Urnings had a distinctive feminine quality that distinguished them from men who desired women

53. Important GLBT researchers across time
Karl Kertbeny ( ) – disagreed with Ulrichs that Urnings were inherently feminine, redefined sexual preference as heterosexual and homosexual. Asserted that homosexual men were no more effeminate that heterosexuals.

54. Important GLBT researchers across time
Magnus Hirschfeld ( ) Presented the case for the humanity of Transvestism. Argued that homosexuality was inherent. In 1897, he helped found the first organization for homosexual rights. He also founded the first journal devoted to the study of sexuality and the first Institute of Sexual Science.

55. Important GLBT researchers across time
Evelyn Hooker – ( ) – Demonstrated that homosexuality is not in itself a psychological disorder. She demonstrated that “gay” men do not significantly differ from “straight” men in personality characteristics.

56. Important GLBT researchers across time
Michel Foucault ( ) – Postulated that society creates social ideals and then works to perpetuate the same ideals. He challenged that society “constructs” sexuality including heterosexual and homosexuality

57. Ethnicity and Sexuality
Researchers have begun to recognize differences among ethnic groups
Related factors: socioeconomic status, environment, methodology, researcher’s stereotypes

58. African Americans and Research
Sexual stereotypes – “black males are hypersexual beings”
Racism towards black women promoted the exploitation of black women by white masters during the slavery era.
Socioeconomic status – Low SES results in higher risk behaviors and early sexual practice / pregnancies
Black subcultures – exploitation of sexuality through music

59. African Americans and Research
Future research:
1) explore the sexual attitudes of the entire population, not just the adolescent population
2) examine sexuality from the black perspective / cultural viewpoint
3) use cultural equivalencies that rejects the differences between white and black as signs of inherent deviances

60. Latinos and Research
Sexual stereotypes – men are pathologically “macho” / promiscuous, and the culture is sexually permissive
Traditional cultures – machismo is a preferred characteristic, and familismo is a preferred value.
Catholicism – premarital virginity expected and contraception forbidden
Acculturation – changing practice and values as one culture adopts to another culture practice

61. Latinos and Research
Factors to consider in Latino Sexuality research –
1) diversity of ethnic groups
2) significance of socioeconomic status
3) degree of acculturation
4) impact of bicultural Latino families

62. Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders
Increase in population – fastest growing and most diversified populations in the U.S.
Collectivist culture – focus is often on what is for the good of the family and less interest on the self. Low divorce rates and more focus is on the sexual pleasure of the man
Immigration and Acculturation
Many Asian Americans practice less traditional cultural practice in human sexuality and more westernized norms and practices.

63. End of Chapter 2