1. Parents Influencing Peers/Peers Influencing Parents? A Transactional Model of Autonomy Development from Age 13 to 18 Joseph P. Allen Jill Antonishak F. Christy McFarland Jessica R Meyer University of Virginia Collaborators: Maryfrances Porter, Ph.D. Penny Marsh Kathleen McElhaney, Ph.D. Nell Manning Farah Williams Debbie Land, Ph.D. Katie Little Jennifer Haynes Martin Ho Mindy Schmidt, Ph.D. Glenda Insabella, Ph.D. Wrenn Thompson Joanna Chango Copies of this and related papers are available at: WWW.TEENRESEARCH.ORG

2. Autonomy in Families with Adolescents Long-recognized Importance Of Autonomy Processes: Long-recognized Importance Of Autonomy Processes: For Development Within The Family For Development Within The Family Development Beyond It Development Beyond It Frequently Assumed That Parents Are Directors Of This Process Frequently Assumed That Parents Are Directors Of This Process Role Of “Child Effects” Has Received Far Less Attention Role Of “Child Effects” Has Received Far Less Attention The “Dance” Of Parent-teen Interactions The “Dance” Of Parent-teen Interactions

3. Potential Pathways of Family-Peer Influence Family Relationships  Peer Relationships Family Relationships  Peer Relationships Are There Continuities in Autonomy Across Relationship Contexts? Are There Continuities in Autonomy Across Relationship Contexts? Peer Behavior Peer Behavior Toward Teens  Teen Behavior with Parents Can Behavior with Parents Be Seen As Sequelae of Experiences with Peers? Can Behavior with Parents Be Seen As Sequelae of Experiences with Peers? Peer Ecology  Parenting Behavior Peer Ecology  Parenting Behavior How Does The Peer Group Influence Parenting Behavior? How Does The Peer Group Influence Parenting Behavior?

4. How much permeability exists between the ecology of the family and the ecology of the peer group?

5. The Triad of Problematic Family Interactions The Non-Autonomous Teen The Non-Autonomous Teen The Hostile Parent-Teen Interaction The Hostile Parent-Teen Interaction The Overcontrolling Parent The Overcontrolling Parent Where do these things come from? Where do these things come from? Beyond blaming the parent Beyond blaming the parent

6. Sample 184 Adolescents, their Parents, Best Friends, and Other Friends 184 Adolescents, their Parents, Best Friends, and Other Friends Equal numbers of Males and Females Equal numbers of Males and Females Assessed Annually, Beginning at Age 13 Assessed Annually, Beginning at Age 13 Highly Socio-economically Diverse (Median Family Income= $40- $60K) Highly Socio-economically Diverse (Median Family Income= $40- $60K) 31% African American; 69% European American 31% African American; 69% European American Intensive Interviews and Observations with all parties (Parents, teens, best friends, other friends) (Total N over first 6 years ~ 1200). Intensive Interviews and Observations with all parties (Parents, teens, best friends, other friends) (Total N over first 6 years ~ 1200).

7. Potential Pathways of Family-Peer Influence Family Relationships  Peer Relationships Family Relationships  Peer Relationships Are There Continuities in Autonomy Across Relationship Contexts? Are There Continuities in Autonomy Across Relationship Contexts? Peer Behavior Peer Behavior Toward Teens  Teen Behavior with Parents Can Behavior with Parents Be Seen As Sequelae of Experiences with Peers? Can Behavior with Parents Be Seen As Sequelae of Experiences with Peers? Peer Ecology  Parenting Behavior Peer Ecology  Parenting Behavior How Does The Peer Group Influence Parenting Behavior? How Does The Peer Group Influence Parenting Behavior?

8. Family Relationships  Peer Relationships Are There Continuities in Autonomy Across Relationship Contexts? Peer Relationship Quality Predicted by Observed Family Interactions Peer Relationship Quality Predicted by Observed Family Interactions Predict Change Over Time in Autonomy Processes with Peers Predict Change Over Time in Autonomy Processes with Peers Short-term Change from Age 13 to 14 Short-term Change from Age 13 to 14

9. Measures: Autonomy in Observed Mother-Teen Interactions Coded from an eight-minute interaction around a standing topic of disagreement Coded from an eight-minute interaction around a standing topic of disagreement Autonomy & Relatedness Coding System (Allen et al., 2004) Autonomy & Relatedness Coding System (Allen et al., 2004) Displays of Autonomy Displays of Autonomy Stating reasons for disagreeing Stating reasons for disagreeing Confidence in speaking Confidence in speaking

10. Measures: Teen Assertiveness (as Observed by Closest Friend) Assertive Influence Scale from Interpersonal Competence Questionnaire (Buhrmester et al., 1988) Assertive Influence Scale from Interpersonal Competence Questionnaire (Buhrmester et al., 1988) 8 items reported by peer about target teen’s ability at: 8 items reported by peer about target teen’s ability at: Getting people to go along with what he/she wants Getting people to go along with what he/she wants Taking charge Taking charge Sticking up for his/herself Sticking up for his/herself Voicing his/her desires and opinions Voicing his/her desires and opinions

11. Predicting Change in Assertiveness with Best Friend Teen Assertiveness (Age 14) Teen Assertiveness (Age 14)   R 2 Total R 2 Total R 2 Step I. Teen Assertiveness (Age 13) Teen Assertiveness (Age 13).16+.03+.03+ Step II. Autonomy with Mother (Age 13).21**.06**.09** Autonomy with Mother Predicts Increasing Assertiveness with a Best Friend Over Time

12. Potential Pathways of Family-Peer Influence Family Relationships  Peer Relationships Family Relationships  Peer Relationships Are There Continuities in Autonomy Across Relationship Contexts? Are There Continuities in Autonomy Across Relationship Contexts? Peer Behavior Peer Behavior Toward Teens  Teen Behavior with Parents Can Behavior with Parents Be Seen As Sequelae of Experiences with Peers? Can Behavior with Parents Be Seen As Sequelae of Experiences with Peers? Peer Ecology  Parenting Behavior Peer Ecology  Parenting Behavior How Does The Peer Group Influence Parenting Behavior? How Does The Peer Group Influence Parenting Behavior?

13. Measures: Teens’ Verbal Abuse in Disagreements with Mother (Maternal Report) Psychological Aggression Scale from Conflict Tactics Scale (Straus, 1979) Psychological Aggression Scale from Conflict Tactics Scale (Straus, 1979) 6-items, Maternal Report: 6-items, Maternal Report: Insulting or swearing at Parent Insulting or swearing at Parent Sulking/refusing to talk Sulking/refusing to talk Stomping out of room Stomping out of room Assessed at age 13 and again at age 17 Assessed at age 13 and again at age 17

14. Measures: Autonomy & Relatedness in Observed Teen-Peer Interactions Coded from an eight-minute interaction around a hypothetical disagreement Coded from an eight-minute interaction around a hypothetical disagreement Teen with their closest friend Teen with their closest friend Displays of Autonomy by Peer Displays of Autonomy by Peer Stating reasons for disagreeing Stating reasons for disagreeing Displays of Relatedness by Peer Displays of Relatedness by Peer Collaborative Behaviors (close listening, looking for mutual solutions) Collaborative Behaviors (close listening, looking for mutual solutions)

15. Predicting Change in Teen Verbal Abuse Toward Mother Verbal Abuse (Age 17) Verbal Abuse (Age 17)   R 2 Total R 2 Total R 2 Step I. Teen Verbal Abuse to Mom (Age 13) Teen Verbal Abuse to Mom (Age 13).45***.24***.24***

16. Predicting Change in Teen Verbal Abuse Toward Mother Verbal Abuse (Age 17) Verbal Abuse (Age 17)   R 2 Total R 2 Total R 2 Step I. Teen Verbal Abuse to Mom (Age 13) Teen Verbal Abuse to Mom (Age 13).45***.24***.24*** Step II. Use of Reasoning by Friend (Age 13) -.15** Collaborative Behavior by Friend -.22** Statistics for Step Statistics for Step.08***.32*** Autonomy & Relatedness  Decreasing Verbal Abuse Modeled by Friend Toward Mom (Ages 13 to 17)

17. Potential Pathways of Family-Peer Influence Family Relationships  Peer Relationships Family Relationships  Peer Relationships Are There Continuities in Autonomy Across Relationship Contexts? Are There Continuities in Autonomy Across Relationship Contexts? Peer Behavior Peer Behavior Toward Teens  Teen Behavior with Parents Can Behavior with Parents Be Seen As Sequelae of Experiences with Peers? Can Behavior with Parents Be Seen As Sequelae of Experiences with Peers? Peer Ecology  Parenting Behavior Peer Ecology  Parenting Behavior How Does The Peer Group Influence Parenting Behavior? How Does The Peer Group Influence Parenting Behavior?

18. Potential Pathways of Family-Peer Influence Family Relationships  Peer Relationships Family Relationships  Peer Relationships Are There Continuities in Autonomy Across Relationship Contexts? Are There Continuities in Autonomy Across Relationship Contexts? Peer Behavior Peer Behavior Toward Teens  Teen Behavior with Parents Can Behavior with Parents Be Seen As Sequelae of Experiences with Peers? Can Behavior with Parents Be Seen As Sequelae of Experiences with Peers? Peer Ecology  Parenting Behavior Peer Ecology  Parenting Behavior How Does The Peer Group Influence Parenting Behavior? How Does The Peer Group Influence Parenting Behavior?

19. Potential Pathways of Family-Peer Influence Family Relationships  Peer Relationships Family Relationships  Peer Relationships Are There Continuities in Autonomy Across Relationship Contexts? Are There Continuities in Autonomy Across Relationship Contexts? Peer Behavior Peer Behavior Toward Teens  Teen Behavior with Parents Can Behavior with Parents Be Seen As Sequelae of Experiences with Peers? Can Behavior with Parents Be Seen As Sequelae of Experiences with Peers? Peer Ecology  Parenting Behavior Peer Ecology  Parenting Behavior How Does The Peer Group Influence Parenting Behavior? How Does The Peer Group Influence Parenting Behavior?

20. Measures: Maternal Psychological Control Psychological Control Scale from Child Report of Parenting Behavior Inventory (Schludermann et al., 1970) Psychological Control Scale from Child Report of Parenting Behavior Inventory (Schludermann et al., 1970) Assessed at age 13 and again at age 17 Assessed at age 13 and again at age 17 Maternal self-report Maternal self-report 10-item scale assessing parent use of guilt, anxiety, love withdrawal or other psychological methods to control behavior 10-item scale assessing parent use of guilt, anxiety, love withdrawal or other psychological methods to control behavior I tell my child if s/he really cared for me, s/he would not do things that cause me to worry I tell my child if s/he really cared for me, s/he would not do things that cause me to worry I want to control whatever my child does I want to control whatever my child does I am less friendly with my child if s/he does not see things my way I am less friendly with my child if s/he does not see things my way

21. Maternal Psychological Control Associated with Numerous Negative Outcomes Associated with Numerous Negative Outcomes But WHY do parents engage in it? But WHY do parents engage in it? The role of fear…fear that may be grounded in reality. The role of fear…fear that may be grounded in reality.

22. Measures: Academic Values Adapted from Questions in Peer Pressure Inventory (Brown, 1982) Adapted from Questions in Peer Pressure Inventory (Brown, 1982) 5 questions regarding values toward school work, assessing importance teen places on: 5 questions regarding values toward school work, assessing importance teen places on: Doing well in school Doing well in school Getting good grades Getting good grades Being polite to teachers Being polite to teachers Being liked by teachers Being liked by teachers Avoiding schoolwork wherever possible (reverse coded) Avoiding schoolwork wherever possible (reverse coded)

23. Measures: Sexual Behavior Ever having had voluntary sexual intercourse. Ever having had voluntary sexual intercourse.

24. Measures: Delinquent Behavior Frequency of engaging in each of 38 different illegal acts over the past year (Elliott & Ageton, 1983). Frequency of engaging in each of 38 different illegal acts over the past year (Elliott & Ageton, 1983). Items including: Items including: purposely damaged or destroyed property not belonging to you purposely damaged or destroyed property not belonging to you stolen or tried to steal something worth more than $50 stolen or tried to steal something worth more than $50 been involved in gang fights been involved in gang fights

25. Are Parents Becoming Controlling Because They Fear What They See in the Friends of Their Teens?

26. Predicting Change in Maternal Psychological Control Psychological Control (Age 17) Psychological Control (Age 17)   R 2 Total R 2 Total R 2 Step I. Mat’l Psychological Control (Age 13) Mat’l Psychological Control (Age 13).69***.47***.47***

27. Predicting Change in Maternal Psychological Control Psychological Control (Age 17) Psychological Control (Age 17)   R 2 Total R 2 Total R 2 Step I. Mat’l Psychological Control (Age 13) Mat’l Psychological Control (Age 13).69***.47***.47*** Step II. Peer Valuing Academics (Age 17) Peer Valuing Academics (Age 17) -.19** Statistics for Step Statistics for Step.04**.51*** Peer Devaluing of Academics (13)  Decreasing Verbal Abuse Toward Mom (Ages 13 to 17)

28. Predicting Change in Maternal Psychological Control Psychological Control (Age 17) Psychological Control (Age 17)   R 2 Total R 2 Total R 2 Step I. Mat’l Psychological Control (Age 13) Mat’l Psychological Control (Age 13).69***.47***.47*** Step II. Peer Valuing Academics (Age 17) Peer Valuing Academics (Age 17) -.19** Teen Valuing Academics (Age 17) Teen Valuing Academics (Age 17) -.03 Statistics for Step Statistics for Step.04**.51*** Peer values effects are not surrogates for the teen’s values

29. Predicting Change in Maternal Psychological Control Psychological Control (Age 17) Psychological Control (Age 17)   R 2 Total R 2 Total R 2 Step I. Mat’l Psychological Control (Age 13) Mat’l Psychological Control (Age 13).69***.47***.47*** Step II. Peer Sexual Experience (Age 17) Peer Sexual Experience (Age 17).18* Statistics for Step Statistics for Step.03**.50*** Peer Sexual Activity Can Explain Increased Maternal Psychological Control Behavior (Ages 13 to 17)

30. Predicting Change in Maternal Psychological Control Psychological Control (Age 17) Psychological Control (Age 17)   R 2 Total R 2 Total R 2 Step I. Mat’l Psychological Control (Age 13) Mat’l Psychological Control (Age 13).69***.47***.47*** Step II. Peer Sexual Experience (Age 17) Peer Sexual Experience (Age 17).18* Teen Sexual Experience (Age 17) Teen Sexual Experience (Age 17) -.03 Statistics for Step Statistics for Step.03**.50*** Peer Sexual Activity is not a surrogate for Teen Sexual Activity.

31. Predicting Change in Maternal Psychological Control Psychological Control (Age 17) Psychological Control (Age 17)   R 2 Total R 2 Total R 2 Step I. Mat’l Psychological Control (Age 13) Mat’l Psychological Control (Age 13).70***.49***.49*** Step II. Peer Delinquency (Age 17) Peer Delinquency (Age 17).15* Statistics for Step Statistics for Step.02+.51*** Peer Delinquent Activity Can Explain Increased Maternal Psychological Control Behavior (Ages 13 to 17)

32. Predicting Change in Maternal Psychological Control Psychological Control (Age 17) Psychological Control (Age 17)   R 2 Total R 2 Total R 2 Step I. Mat’l Psychological Control (Age 13) Mat’l Psychological Control (Age 13).70***.49***.49*** Step II. Peer Delinquency (Age 17) Peer Delinquency (Age 17).15* Teen Delinquency (Age 17) Teen Delinquency (Age 17).01 Statistics for Step Statistics for Step.02+.51*** Peer Delinquent Activity is not a surrogate for Teen Delinquency.

33. Predicting Change in Maternal Psychological Control Psychological Control (Age 17) Psychological Control (Age 17)   R 2 Total R 2 Total R 2 Step I. Mat’l Psychological Control (Age 13) Mat’l Psychological Control (Age 13).69***.47***.47*** Step II. Peer Academic Values (Age 17) Peer Academic Values (Age 17) -.18*** -.18*** Peer Sexual Experience (Age 17) Peer Sexual Experience (Age 17)-.15* Peer Delinquency (Age 17) Peer Delinquency (Age 17).06 Statistics for Step Statistics for Step.06***.53*** Peer Behavior Sums to Explain Increased Maternal Psychological Control Behavior (Ages 13 to 17)

34. Conclusions Beyond Child Effects to Peer Effects Beyond Child Effects to Peer Effects Permeability/Interpenetration of Family & Peer Systems Permeability/Interpenetration of Family & Peer Systems Psychological Control Doesn’t Emerge de novo Psychological Control Doesn’t Emerge de novo Beyond Parent Blaming Beyond Parent Blaming This study was made possible by grants from the National Institute of Mental Health. Copies of this and related papers are available at: WWW.TEENRESEARCH.ORG

35. Limitations Other important actors Other important actors Non-experimental nature of our data Non-experimental nature of our data Observing a “dance” doesn’t tell us who’s in the lead Observing a “dance” doesn’t tell us who’s in the lead This study was made possible by grants from the National Institute of Mental Health. Copies of this and related papers are available at: WWW.TEENRESEARCH.ORG