1. Chapter 4 Varieties of Consciousness
General Psychology
Chapter 4
Varieties of Consciousness

2. Consciousness Perceptual – awareness of the external environment
Introspective – awareness of one’s own mental processes
It may be best to avoid a precise definition and just say that consciousness has two aspects.

3. Normal Waking Consciousness
According to William James, it is
Always changing
A very personal experience
Sensibly continuous
Selective

4. Freud’s View of Levels of Consciousness
Conscious – ideas, memories, feelings, or motives of which we are actively aware
Preconscious – aspects of our experience that are not conscious, but can easily be brought to awareness
Unconscious – cognitions, feelings, or motives of which we are not aware
Often depicted as an iceberg nearly totally submerged in the sea. Freud theorizes that the unconscious mind can and does influence us. Contents of the unconscious mind can be found in dreams, slips of the tongue, or humor.

5. Figure 4.1: Freud’s Theory.
In the theories of Sigmund Freud, the mind is likened to an iceberg, where only a small potion of one’s mental life is available in normal waking consciousness; more is available, with some effort of retrieval, at a preconscious level; and most is stored away at an unconscious level from which intentional retrieval occurs only with great effort.
Figure 4.1: Freud’s Theory.

6. Contemporary Investigations of the Unconscious
Subliminal perception – perceiving stimuli at intensity levels just below the absolute threshold
Little evidence for the power of these messages
More simple stimuli can be processed; complex messages cannot

7. Contemporary Investigations of the Unconscious
Blindsight – individuals with damaged visual areas who can still see simple stimuli
Person without direct vision can be aware of stimuli
There may be intact lower brain centers responsible

8. Sleep & Dreams We spend nearly 200,000 hours of our lives sleeping!
EEG – measures brain activity
EMG – measures muscle tone
Best indicators of sleep are EEG and EMG.

9. Sleep Cycle Stage 1 is a very light sleep
Stage 2, you can still be easily awakened
Stage 3, internal functions are lowering and slowing
Stage 4 is a deep sleep – muscles are totally relaxed, and about 15% of sleep is in this stage
Infants spend a great amount of time in this restorative phase, and adults increase stage 4 after exertion.

10. Figure 4.2: EEG records showing the general electrical activity of the brain for a person at various stages of sleep and wakefulness.

11. Sleep Stages, Con’t.
There are also periods of sleep where eyes dart around under closed eyelids
This is called rapid eye movement, or REM sleep
People awakened during REM often (about 85% of the time) report clear, vivid dreams
In REM, there is considerable brain activity, almost like wakefulness. However, during REM, there is ATONIA, which is a total relaxation of the muscles. REM also produces increased sexual arousal. We also have NonREM sleep (about 75% of sleep in adults). Persons awakened in NREM may report dreaming (about 25% of the time), but not vivid dreams.

12. Dreaming Freud– Interpretation of Dreams Wish-fulfillment purpose
Manifest content – content of which the dreamer is consciously aware
Latent content – true, underlying meaning of the dream that resides in a person’s unconscious mind
Most influential view of nature of dreams presented by Freud.

13. Jung vs. Freud
Carl Jung – dreams are transparent or obvious, and symbolism inherent in dreams is related to universal human concerns
Sigmund Freud – dreams preserve our sanity by allowing us to gratify forbidden or unrealistic wishes

14. Dreams
Activation-Synthesis Theory – dreams are activated via physiological mechanisms in the brainstem
Brainstem generates neural activity
Cerebral cortex synthesizes the activity into meaningful “stories”
The brain is trying to make sense of random neural firing occurring during sleep.

15. Sleep Disorders Insomnia – inability to fall asleep or stay asleep
Pseudoinsomnia – person believes he or she is not getting enough sleep, but is sleeping more than he or she realizes
Medications seldom work in treatment
Sleep is apparently a necessary thing. Chronic insomnia affects nearly 30 million Americans. It is more common in the elderly than in younger adults. Regulating melotonin may help, but many cases are rooted in bad sleeping habits.

16. Table 4.1: Techniques recommended for getting a good night’s sleep.

17. Sleep Disorders
Narcolepsy – involves going to sleep without any intention to do so
Associated with the loss of specific types of neurons in hypothalamus
Long treated with prescribed stimulants, but this approach has serious side effects
Nearly 350,00 Americans suffer from narcolepsy. It is characterized by a sudden decrease in muscle tone. People with this condition experience paralysis upon falling asleep and dreamlike images that occur as soon as they go to sleep or awaken. Now, a new drug, Modafinil, has been approved for narcolepsy and is having good results so far.

18. Sleep Disorders
Sleep Apnea – involves patterns of sleep, usually short, during which breathing stops entirely
Occurs most among men over age 40 who are overweight
As many as 12 million Americans suffer from sleep apnea. It is a partial cause of hypertension, heart disease, impotence, and memory loss. It is also a suspect in the cause of SIDS.

19. Hypnosis Marked increase in suggestibility Focusing of attention
Exaggerated use of imagination
Unwillingness or inability to act on one’s own
Unquestioning acceptance of distortions of reality
State of consciousness that typically requires the voluntary cooperation of the person being hypnotized.

20. Common Issues Concerning Hypnosis
Susceptibility to hypnosis varies from person to person
It’s unlikely a person will do anything under hypnosis that he or she would not do otherwise
The issue of it being a unique state of consciousness is debatable
Hypnosis can be used to alleviate pain
Some people resist.
Entering hypnotic state is voluntary.
The subject must have ability to daydream and fantasize.
Suggestibility and willingness are important.

21. Common Issues Concerning Hypnosis, Cont’d.
5. Where one can remember things under hypnosis and could not otherwise is debated
6. Age-regression hypnotic sessions have not proved valid
7. Using hypnosis to refresh the memory of a witness may lead to false memories

22. Meditation
Self-induced state of altered consciousness characterized by focused attention and relaxation
Physical changes do take place
David Holmes says there is no difference between relaxation and meditation

23. Altering Consciousness with Drugs
Psychoactive drugs – chemicals that alter psychological processes
Dependence
Tolerance
Withdrawal
Addiction

24. Altering Consciousness with Drugs
Drug Abuse –
Lack of control
Disruption of interpersonal relationships or work difficulties
Drug has been used for at least a month
There is a continuum from total abstinence through heavy social use to addiction.

25. Stimulants
Activate an organism, producing heightened sense of arousal and elevated mood
Caffeine
Nicotine
Cocaine/Crack
Amphetamines

26. Depressants Alcohol – Most commonly used depressant
Pregnant mothers should avoid
Blood alcohol level affected by amount one drinks and how fast it is absorbed in bloodstream
Use and abuse is associated with socio-cultural factors
Over 50% of alcohol consumption in the U.S. is by persons aged 12-20, and results in more than 100,000 deaths a year!

27. Depressants Opiates – can be used to reduce or eliminate pain
Heroin
Barbiturates – synthetic sedatives

28. Hallucinogens
Chemicals that lead to the formation of hallucinations (usually visual)
LSD
Acts on serotonin receptor sites
Small doses can have great effect
Changes in mood tend to be exaggerated
Hallucinations tend to be exaggerations of perception

29. Marijuana Consciousness-altering drug from the cannabis, or hemp plant
In small doses, it is a depressant
In large doses, it is a hallucinogenic
Active ingredient is THC
Can reduce nausea, but can cause cancer, lung disease, and impairment in judgment

30. Ecstasy (MDMA) A psychedelic amphetamine Popular Tolerance can develop
Unpleasant physical problem can develop
Can be particularly dangerous when mixed with alcohol.

31. Table 4.2: A few examples of common psychoactive drugs.

32. Ethnic and Gender Difference in Drug and Alcohol Abuse
Illicit drugs – drugs whose use, possession, or sale is illegal
More men than women admit to using
American Indians and Native Hawaiians more likely to use
Asians least likely to use
Caucasians are most likely to use alcohol
Illicit drug use in the U.S. began to drop slightly in the late ‘90s.

33. Figure S.2: Current, binge, and heavy alcohol use among persons aged 12 or older, by race/ethnicity: 2003 (with permission, from SAMSHA, 2003).