1. Week 4: Chapter 4 Understanding research philosophies and approaches & Chapter 5 Formulating the research design

2. Underlying issues of data collection and analysis
The research ‘onion’
Saunders et al, (2008)
Figure 4.1 The research ‘onion’

3. Understanding your research philosophy (1)
‘Research philosophy is an over-arching term relating to the development of knowledge and the nature of that knowledge’
Adapted from Saunders et al, (2009)

4. Understanding your research philosophy (2)
Thinking about research philosophy, there are 3 ways:-
Ontology – what assumptions do we make about the ways the world works? Are social entities objective (reality external to social actors) or are they built on social constructions (perceptions of social actors)?
Epistemology – acceptable knowledge in a particular field of study? What is/shd be regarded as acceptable knowledge in a discipline. Can the social world be/shd be studied using the same principles & procedures like natural science?
Axiology – studies judgement about value

5. Question? Do we have to adopt philosophy?
Pragmatism – research question is the most important determinant of epistemology, ontology and axiology of our research.

6. Understanding your research philosophy (3)
Aspects of ontology
Objectivism – social phenomena and their meanings have an existence that is independent of social actors.
Subjectivism – social phenomena are created from the perceptions and consequent actions of social actors, concerned with their existence.

7. Understanding your research philosophy (4)
Aspects of philosophy
Positivism - the stance of the natural scientist, observable social reality, result law-like generalisations
Realism (reality is independent of the mind) direct and critical realism (Bhaskar, 1989), knowledge of reality is due to social conditioning
Interpretivism – researchers as ‘social actors’, understanding social reality through the actors point of view
Axiology – studies judgements about value, our own value plays a role in the research

8. Research paradigms Definition
‘A way of examining social phenomenon from which particular understandings of these phenomena can be gained and explanations attempted’
Saunders et al. (2009)
Please refer to Table 4.1 for comparisons of research philosophies in management research.

9. Research Approaches (1)
Deduction
5 sequential stages of testing theory
Deducing a hypothesis
Expressing the hypothesis operationally
Testing the operational hypothesis
Examining the specific outcome of the enquiry
Modifying the theory (if necessary)
Adapted from Robson (2002)

10. The Process of Deduction
1. Theory
2. Hypothesis
3. Data collection
4. Findings
5. Hypothesis confirmed or rejected
6. Revision of theory
(Bryman and Bell, 2007)

11. Research Approaches (2)
Characteristics of Deduction
Explaining causal relationships between variables
Establishing controls for testing hypotheses
Independence of the researcher
Concepts operationalised for quantative measurement
Generalisation

12. Research Approaches (3)
Induction
Building theory by –
Understanding the way human build their world
Permitting alternative explanations of what’s going on
Being concerned with the context of events
Using more qualitative data
Using a variety of data collection methods

13. Choosing your research approach
The right choice of approach helps you to
Make a more informed decision about the research design
Think about which strategies will work for your research topic
Adapt your design to cater for any constraints
Adapted from Easterby-Smith et al. (2008)

14. Combining research approaches
Things worth considering
The nature of the research topic
The time available
The extent of risk
The research audience – managers and markers, supervisors, external examiners

15. Deductive and Inductive research
Major differences between these approaches
Saunders et al, (2009)
Table 4.2 Major differences between deductive and inductive approaches to research

16. Summary: Chapter 4 Research philosophy
relates to the development of knowledge and
the nature of that knowledge
contains important assumptions about the way in which you view the world

17. Three major ways of thinking about research philosophy
Summary: Chapter 4
Three major ways of thinking about research philosophy
Epistemology
Ontology – objectivism and subjectivism
Axiology

18. The two main research approaches are
Summary: Chapter 4
The two main research approaches are
Deduction - theory and hypothesis are developed and tested
Induction – data are collected and a theory developed from the data analysis

19. Chapter 5 Formulating the research design

20. The Business Research Process

21. The Process of Research Design
Research choices – single method, multi-methods, mixed methods
Research strategies – experiment, survey, case study, action research, grounded theory, ethnography, archival
Time horizons – longitudinal vs cross-sectional

22. Research Design and Tactics
The research onion
Saunders et al, (2009)
Figure 5.1 The research ‘onion’

23. The research design needs
Clear objectives derived from the research question
To specify sources of data collection
To consider constraints and ethical issues
Valid reasons for your choice of design

24. Classification of the research purpose
Exploratory research
Descriptive studies
Explanatory studies
Causal research - to identify cause and effect relationships (inferences).

25. EXHIBIT 4.4 Characteristics of Different Types of Business Research
Uncertainty Influences the Type of Research Conducted

26. Experiment Action research
Research Strategies
Experiment Action research
Grounded theory Survey
Ethnography Case study
Archival research

27. An experiment will involve
Research Strategies
An experiment will involve
Definition of a theoretical hypothesis
Selection of samples from know populations
Random allocation of samples
Introduction of planned intervention
Measurement on a small number of dependent variables
Control of all other variables

28. Experiments Experiment Experimental variable Manipulation Test-market
A carefully controlled study in which the researcher manipulates a proposed cause and observes any corresponding change in the proposed effect.
Experimental variable
Represents the proposed cause and is controlled by the researcher by manipulating it.
Manipulation
The researcher alters the level of the variable in specific increments.
Test-market
An experiment that is conducted within actual market conditions.

29. A classic experiment strategy
Research Strategies
A classic experiment strategy
Saunders et al, (2009)
Figure 5.2 A classic experiment strategy

30. EXHIBIT 4.3 Testing for Causes with an Experiment

31. Research Strategies Survey: key features Popular in business research
Perceived as authoritative
Allows collection of quantative data
Data can be analysed quantitatively
Samples need to be representative
Gives the researcher independence
Structured observation and interviews can be used

32. Case Study: key features
Research Strategies
Case Study: key features
Provides a rich understanding of a real life context
Uses and triangulates multiple sources of data
A case study can be categorised in four ways
and based on two dimensions:
single case v. multiple case
holistic case v. embedded case
Yin (2003)

33. Action research: key features
Research Strategies
Action research: key features
Research IN action - not ON action
Involves practitioners in the research
The researcher becomes part of the organisation
Promotes change within the organisation
Can have two distinct focii (Schein, 1999) –
the aim of the research and the needs of the sponsor

34. The action research spiral
Research Strategies
The action research spiral
Saunders et al, (2009)
Figure 5.3 The action research spiral

35. Grounded theory: key features
Research Strategies
Grounded theory: key features
Theory is built through induction and deduction
Helps to predict and explain behaviour
Develops theory from data generated by
observations
Is an interpretative process, not a logico-deductive one
Based on Suddaby (2006)

36. Ethnography: key features
Research Strategies
Ethnography: key features
Aims to describe and explain the social world inhabited by the researcher
Takes place over an extended time period
Is naturalistic
Involves extended participant observation

37. Archival research: key features
Research Strategies
Archival research: key features
Uses administrative records and documents as the principal sources of data
Allows research questions focused on the past
Is constrained by the nature of the records and documents

38. The role of the practitioner-researcher
Research Strategies
The role of the practitioner-researcher
Key features
Research access is more easily available
The researcher knows the organisation
Has the disadvantage of familiarity
The researcher is likely to their own assumptions
and preconceptions
The dual role requires careful negotiation

39. Multiple research methods
Research choices
Saunders et al, (2009)
Figure 5.4 Research choices

40. Multiple research methods
Reasons for using mixed method designs:
(Table 5.1 )
Triangulation
Facilitation
Complementarity
Generality
Aid interpretation
Study different aspects
Solving a puzzle
Source: developed from Bryman (2006)

41. Select the appropriate time horizon
Time Horizons
Select the appropriate time horizon
Cross-sectional studies
Longitudinal studies

42. Credibility of research findings
Important considerations
Reliability – extent of data collection & analysis will yield constant findings (subject bias, observer error, observer bias)
Validity – are findings really what they appear to be about
Generalisability – (external validity), are findings equally applicable to other research findings
Logic leaps and false assumptions – research population, data collection, data interpretation, conclusion.

43. Research design ethics
Remember
‘The research design should not subject the research population to embarrassment, harm or other material disadvantage’
Adapted from Saunders et al, (2009)

44. Research projects can be categorised as Research projects may be
Summary: Chapter 5
Research design turns a research question and objectives into a project that considers
Strategies Choices Time horizons
Research projects can be categorised as
Exploratory Descriptive Explanatory
Research projects may be
Cross-sectional Longitudinal

45. Important considerations
Summary: Chapter 5
Important considerations
The main research strategies may combined in the same project
The opportunities provided by using multiple methods
The validity and reliability of results
Access and ethical considerations