1. Introduction to Classical Chinese Philosophy Introduction to Classical Chinese Philosophy By Masayuki Sato Lecture Five The Growth of Ethical Discourse: The Book of Mozi The Book of Mozi 【本著作除另有註明外，採取創用 CC 「姓名標示－非商業性－相同方式分享」台灣 2.5 版 授權釋出】 The “Work” under the Creative Commons Taiwan 2.5 License of “BY-NC-SA”. 1

2. Contents of Today’s Lecture Introduction (1) Ethical and Analytical Discourse: --A Bird’s eye view of the early Chinese thought (2) The Rise and Fall of Mohist “school” (3) The contents and its peculiar formation of the Book of Mozi (4) Main ideas and arguments in Mohism (5) Four observable tensions in the Mohist doctrine 2

3. The Rise of Ethical Discourse Since the formation of the Confucian school (the end of 6 th century ) to the unification of the Chinese world by the Qin dynasty in 221 BCE, Chinese philosophy has witnessed an unprecedented development not only in the Chinese history, but also in the whole human intellectual history. To focus a bit closely the evolutionary line of concepts and arguments in the intellectual discourse during this approximately 300 years, then we can find out the fact that the whole Warring States’ intellectual discourse can be roughly divided into three stages: 3

4. A Bird’s eye view of the history of early Chinese thought (1) Ethical discourse From 6 to 4 century BCE (2) Analytical discourse From 4 to mid 3 century BCE (3) Synthetic discourse Mid-late 3 century BCE 4

5. The Rise of Ethical Discourse (1) Ethical Discourse First stage of the development can be called “ethical discourse” or “moral argumentation”. This mode of argumentative framework prevailed the expansion of Confucian, and Mohist schools to the Chinese world (5 th century) until the time around the death of Mencius (the end of 3 rd ). This discourse is prominent in its advocacy for the moral value in the realm of statecraft. 5

6. Ethical Discourse In the mode of ethical discourse, thinkers advocate their ethical value in the way: “If one ruler cannot embody this or that ethical value (e.g. ren), then that country cannot stand….” The persuasiveness of this discourse is predicated on the subconscious belief of early Chinese people that the words and deeds of a ruler of upper people are to be followed by subordinates. In such a argumentative framework, thinkers competed in the validity and practicability of specific moral values such as “ren” and argumentations which were in accordance with moral principle. 6

7. Switch into Analytical Discourse (2) Analytical Discourse The competitive and chaotic situation among various assertions of ethical values, and its inability to recover the socio-political order and inter-state peace has led to the rise of different mode of argumentation: “analytical discourse”. It closely focuses upon the mechanism of socio- political system, yet, at the same time, attempted to present more practical and “objective” solution. Mid-Warring State Daoism and the Jixia thought of the early 3 rd century represents this trend. 7

8. Synthesis of the two discourse Toward the end of the Warring state period, thinkers started to synthesize these two kinds of discourse. Thus, the philosophical works of this period appear to be syncretic. As is the case of the thought of Xunzi, he incorporated the ideas and arguments coming from analytical discourse into his own, yet has constructed a sophisticate and persuasive ethical theory, while the Mr. Lü’s Annals represents more mixed state of the mid- late Warring States’ thought. 8

9. Three modes of Intellectuals Discourse in Early China Confucius (551-479 BCE ) Mozi Mencius The Jixia masters The compilation of the Laozi The Zhuangzi Xunzi Hanfeizi The Rise of ethical Discourse The Challenge by another mode of ethical discourse The Zenith of ethical Discourse Question to the ethical discourse Start of analytical discourse Criticisms against the validity of ethical discourse He negated the value of ethical discourse, but Han Fei himself was highly motivated by ethical reason for the recovery of socio-political order Recovery of ethical discourse by Incorporating analytical discourse into it 9

10. About Mozi or Mo Di The Founder of Mohism There is no reliable records on the life of the proponent of Mohism---Mo Di 墨翟. He was supposed to act during late 5 th century BCE. Some anecdotes in the Mozi suggest that: (1) He has learnt Confucianism in his youth, (2) His social status was not very high. Master Mo Di 墨翟

11. Mozi and the Mohist school Mo Di 墨翟, the Founder of Mohism Qinhua Li 禽滑離, the most prominent disciple of Mo Di ↓ (some Supreme leaders) Meng Sheng 孟勝, the Supreme Leader ↓ Tian Xiangzi 田襄子 The Supreme Leader who succeeded Meng. ↓ Quarrels between Qi and Qin Mohists The “school” has divided into three sects. 11

12. Mozi and the Mohist school During its Early Period In its early stage of the formation of Mohist school, its management and social function, namely, the supplier of ruling talents were homologous to those of Confucianism. Cf. →prominent students of Mo Di were also appointed by feudal lords to governor.

13. Mozi and the Mohist school During its Early Period In its early stage of the formation of Mohist school, its management and social function, namely, the supplier of ruling talents, were almost homologous to those of Confucianism. Cf. →prominent students of Mo Di were also appointed by feudal lords to governor. Similar socio-political function between them

14. Mozi and the Mohist school Development and Consolidation of its Organization Entering the 4 th century BCE, Mohist school has become very solid “task” group for saving small cities from invasions by stronger countries. The entire Mohist people have followed the order of the Supreme Leader, called Juzi 鉅子. All the Mohists must obey the order of the Supreme Leader, “the law of Mohists” ( 墨者之法 ). Its power superseded that of positive laws of those warring states.

15. Mozi and the Mohist school Setback and of Conversion When the third Supreme Leader, Meng Sheng 孟勝, has accepted the defense of a city of an aristocrat, who accordingly has been killed by his political enemy in around 381. Since that city was overwhelmed by the army of the enemy, Meng Sheng decided to commit group suicide to “keep the trust of Mohist”. After he dispatched a messenger to the country of Qi, giving the message to transmit his position to the next, Meng Sheng and all his men (including the messenger) killed themselves.

16. Mozi and the Mohist school From middle to the late Warring State period, Mohism has flourished. Mencius complained its popularity. In the late Warring State period, intellectuals has often coupled Mo Di with Confucius to designate the most wisest two persons during their time. However, after the unification of Chinese world by the state of Qin, Mohism has rapidly disappeared from the arena of Chinese history forever.

17. The Book of Mozi (71 chaps.) 墨子七十一卷 Until present 53 chapters have survived. Part One: chaps.1-7 “the Epitomes” or supplemental arguments Part Two: chaps. 8-39 the Canonical Chapters or “Ten Themes” Part Three: chaps. 40-45: “Logical Chapters” Part Four: chaps 46-50: “Dialogues and Anecdotes” Part Five: chaps. 61- 71 “On Military Methods” 17

18. The Book of Mozi: The “Core Chapters” Among 71 chapters’ the Book of Mozi, the part two (from chapter 8 to chapter 39) can be regarded as the “core chapters”, which presents “the ten themes”, namely, the essential ideas and arguments in the Mohist doctrine. 18

19. The Book of Mozi: The Ten Themes 1. 尚賢 Shangxian (Exaltation of Worthy) 2. 尚同 Shangtong (Identification to Superior) 3. 兼愛 Jian’ai (UniversaL Love) 4. 非攻 Feigong (Anti-Aggressive War) 5. 節用 Jieyong (Thrift of Expenditure) 6. 節葬 Jiezang (Thrift of Furnera) 7. 天志 Tianzhi (Will of Heaven) 8. 名鬼 Minggui (Illumination of Ghost) 9. 非樂 Feiyue (Anti-music) 10 非命 Feiming (Anti-Fatalism) (Inclusive Care) (Kingly love for all) 19

20. The Ten themes respectively have three identical chapters (some of them have been lost its part or whole text). There are two kinds of explanations on why one theme has three different texts: Cf. Jian’ai shang (Kingly Love for all: text A) Jian’ai zhong (Kingly Love for all: text B) Jian’ai xia (Kingly Love for all: text C). 20

21. An Example of Three Identical Chapters: The case of “Jian’ai” (Kingly Love for all) 聖人以治天下為事者也，必知亂之所自起，焉能治之。 Text A: The wise man who has charge of governing the empire should know the cause of disorder before he can put it in order. 子墨子言曰： “ 仁人之所以為事者，必興天下之利，除去天下 之害，以此為事者也。 ” Text B: The supreme master Mozi said: The purpose of the magnanimous is to be found in procuring benefits for the world and eliminating its calamities. 子墨子言曰： “ 仁人之事者，必務求興天下之利，除天下之害 Text C: The Supreme master Mozi said: The purpose of the magnanimous lies in procuring benefits for the world and eliminating its calamities. 21.

22. Textual Peculiarities of the Book of Mozi (1) Hypothesis 1: Each represents the text which can be attributed to so-called “three sects” in the Mohists school. Cf. The Chapter “Xianxue” 顯學 of the Book of Hanfeizi 韓非子 writes: “ 墨離為三 ” (The Mohist school has divided into three sects.) 22

23. Textual Peculiarities of the Book of Mozi (1) Hypothesis 1 The Early Mohists school Original “Ten doctrines” Disruption of the school Mohist school Mohists sect Shang 上 Text A Zhong 中 Text B Xia 下 Text C 23 National Taiwan University Masayuki Sato

24. Textual Peculiarities of the Book of Mozi (1) Hypothesis 2 Each argument represents the developmental stage in its evolutionary change throughout the Warring States period. Modern scholars like Kiyoshi Akatsuka 赤塚忠, Takashi Watanabe 渡邊卓, and A.C. Graham has strongly support this perspective. Cf. A.C. Graham regarded the oldest as “pure”, middle as “conservative”, and newest as “reactionary.” 24

25. Textual Peculiarities of the Book of Mozi (1) Hypothesis 2 Shang 上 Text A Zhong 中 Text B Xia 下 Text C Mohists sect The Early Mohists school Development or evolutionary change of thought Development or evolutionary change of thought 25 National Taiwan University Masayuki Sato

26. Textual Peculiarities of the Book of Mozi (1) Akatsuka and Watanabe went on assuming that there have been time difference not only among those identical three texts, but also among ten themes. Akatsuka, Watanabe, and Graham would agree on the point that “Kingly love for all” and “Anti- Aggressive War” have been the most essential and the earliest part of the whole Mohist doctrine. In contrast, “Illumination of Ghosts” and “Identification to the Superior” have been taken into form as Mohist school has gradually accepted the idea of totalitarian rule as indicated in the rule by the state of Qin. 26

27. Mohism: the change of thought Mozi Early Mohism (pure): “Kingly love for all” “Anti-agrressive war” “Exaltation to the worthy” Mid-Warring states’ Mohism (conservative): “Anti-funeral” “Anti-music” “Anti-fatalism” Late-Warring States’ Mohism (reactionary): “The illumination of Ghost” “Identification to the Superior” “The Will of Heaven” Small states need the ideology and skill of Mohism Big states hired Mohists for the defense of cities Big states hired Mohists for the defense of her new territories 27 National Taiwan University Masayuki Sato

28. Textual Peculiarities of the Book of Mozi (1) However, the recent excavation of a bamboo manuscript from the mid-Warring States’ Chu tomb requests scholars to reconsider the plausibility of aforementioned evolutionary picture of the Ten themes, because the content of the Chu manuscript resembles that of “Illumination of Ghosts” which evolutionarist scholars have regarded it as representing almost last Warring States’ Mohist notion on ghost and spirit. 28

29. Textual Peculiarities of the Book of Mozi (1) However, the recent excavation of a bamboo manuscript from the mid-Warring States’ Chu tomb requests scholars to reconsider the plausibility of aforementioned evolutionary picture of the Ten themes, because the content of the Chu manuscript resembles that of “Illumination of Ghosts” which evolutionarist scholars have regarded it as representing almost the last Warring States’ Mohist notion on ghost and spirit. 29

30. Textual Peculiarities of the Book of Mozi (1) However, the recent excavation of a bamboo manuscript from the mid-Warring States’ Chu tomb requests scholars to reconsider the plausibility of aforementioned evolutionary picture of the Ten themes, because the content of the Chu manuscript resembles that of the “Illumination of Ghosts” which evolutionarist scholars have regarded it as representing almost last Warring States’ Mohist notion on ghost and spirit. → The “Illumination of Ghost” chapter has been already existed in early-mid Warring States period. 30

31. Textual Peculiarities of the Book of Mozi (1) Our assumption: Mohists have advocated initial arguments on “the Ten themes” in the early stage of its development, including the time of Mo Di. In parallel with the expansion of their activity area, and the development of their doctrine, new contents have been added and the whole arguments have accordingly expanded. After mid-Warring States period, the school splited into three sect, and each sect has preserved their own version of the “Ten Themes.” Several generations of transmission of text diversified greatly the content of argument. 31

32. Textual Peculiarities of the Book of Mozi (2) unique “writing” Style Among the students of Chinese thought, “the Ten Themes” has been well-known by it very unique he writing style. Most of arguments consisits of simple sentences, which are on the one hand, very easy to understand, on the other hand, are repetitive and devoid of skillful rhetoric and sophisticate demonstration of argumentative points. Their arguments basically consists of sets of the repetitive insistence on central topics, rather than the process of gradual demonstration. 32

33. Textual Peculiarities of the Book of Mozi (2) Past researches have assumed that the simple style represents the possibility that Mo Di and early stage of their members came from low social class, such as craftsmen and carpenters. However, a research on the style of “the Ten Theme” suggests that it might have been composed for reciting. Perhaps they were chanted like a spell on various occasions. 33

34. 子墨子言曰： “ 今者王公大人為政於國家者，皆 欲國家之富，人民之眾，刑政之治，然而不得富 而得貧，不得眾而得寡，不得治而得亂，則是本 失其所欲，得其所惡，是其故何也？ ” 子墨子言曰： “ 是在王公大人為政於國家者，不 能以尚賢事能為政也。 曰： “ 然則眾賢之術將柰何哉？ ” 子墨子言曰： “ 譬若欲眾其國之善射御之士者， 必將富之， 是故子墨子言曰： “ 得意賢士不可不舉，不得意 賢士不可不舉，尚欲祖述堯舜禹湯之道，將不可 以不尚賢。夫尚賢者，政之本也。 ” ( 尚賢上篇 ) 34

35. 子墨子言曰： “ 今者王公大人為政於國家者，皆 欲國家之富，人民之眾，刑政之治，然而不得富 而得貧，不得眾而得寡，不得治而得亂，則是本 失其所欲，得其所惡，是其故何也？ ” 子墨子言曰： “ 是在王公大人為政於國家者，不 能以尚賢事能為政也。 曰： “ 然則眾賢之術將柰何哉？ ” 子墨子言曰： “ 譬若欲眾其國之善射御之士者， 必將富之， 是故子墨子言曰： “ 得意賢士不可不舉，不得意 賢士不可不舉，尚欲祖述堯舜禹湯之道，將不可 以不尚賢。夫尚賢者，政之本也。 ” ( 尚賢上篇 ) 35

36. Style for reciting: an example Our Supreme Master Mo said: Now, all the rulers desire their provinces to be wealthy, their people to be numerous, and their jurisdiction to secure order. But what they obtain is not wealth but poverty, not multitude but scarcity, not order but chaos - this is to lose what they desire and obtain what they avert. Why is this? Our Supreme Master Mo said: This is because the rulers have failed to exalt the virtuous and to employ the capable in their government…. The Master asked: But what is the way to multiply the virtuous? 36

37. Style for reciting: an example Our Supreme Master Mo said: Supposing it is desired to multiply good archers and good drivers in the country, it will be only natural to enrich them, honour them, respect them, and commend them; then good archers and good drivers can be expected to abound in the country. Therefore Our Supreme Master Mo said: If it is desired to continue the ways of Yao and Shun, to exalt the virtuous is indispensable. Now, exaltation of the virtuous is the root of government. exalted too. (Chapter “Shangxian A”) 37

38. Style for reciting: an example Our Supreme Master Mo said: Now, all the rulers desire their provinces to be wealthy, their people to be numerous, and their jurisdiction to secure order. But what they obtain is not wealth but poverty, not multitude but scarcity, not order but chaos - this is to lose what they desire and obtain what they avert. Why is this? Our Supreme Master Mo said: This is because the rulers have failed to exalt the virtuous and to employ the capable in their government…. The Master asked: But what is the way to multiply the virtuous? 38

39. Style for reciting: an example Our Supreme Master Mo said: Supposing it is desired to multiply good archers and good drivers in the country, it will be only natural to enrich them, honour them, respect them, and commend them; then good archers and good drivers can be expected to abound in the country. Therefore Our Supreme Master Mo said: If it is desired to continue the ways of Yao and Shun, to exalt the virtuous is indispensable. Now, exaltation of the virtuous is the root of government. (Chapter “Shangxian A”) 39

40. Textual Peculiarities of the Book of Mozi (2) “Our Supreme Master Mo said:” Introduction: the reason for bad government “Our Supreme Master Mo said:” Answer I: Failure to higher worthy talents “The Master asked:” Qustion: the way for recruiting many worthy “Our Supreme Master Mo said:” Answer II: To Enrich worthy “Therefore Our Supreme Master Mo said:” Conclusion: It matches the way of the sage rulers 40

41. Textual Peculiarities of the Book of Mozi (2) “The Ten Themes” might have been composed not for persuading the thinkers or the people of rival schools, but for inculcating its doctrine into the mind of all members of the school. 41

42. Textual Peculiarities of the Book of Mozi (2) “The Ten Themes” might have been composed not for persuading the thinkers or the people of rival schools, but for inculcating its doctrine into the mind of all members of the school. 42

43. Main ideas and arguments in Mohism 1. 尚賢 Shangxian (Exaltation of Worthy) “ 皆欲國家之富，人民之眾，刑政之治 …” “Now, all the rulers desire their provinces to be wealthy, their people to be numerous, and their jurisdiction to secure order.” (A) “ 國有賢良之士眾，則國家之治厚，賢良之士寡 ，則國家之治薄。 ” When the virtuous are numerous in the state, order will be stable; when the virtuous are scarce, order will be unstable. (A) 43

44. Main ideas and arguments in Mohism 2. 尚同 Shangtong (Identification to Superior) 是以一人則一義，二人則二義，十人則十義，其人茲眾 ，其所謂義者亦茲眾。是以人是其義，以非人之義，故 文相非也。是以內者父子兄弟作怨惡，離散不能相和合 。 In the beginning of human life, when there was yet no law and government, the custom was "everybody according to his own idea." Accordingly each man had his own idea, two men had two different ideas and ten men had ten different ideas -- the more people the more different notions. And everybody approved of his own view and disapproved the views of others, and so arose mutual disapproval among men. 44

45. Main ideas and arguments in Mohism 2. 尚同 Shangtong (Identification to Superior) 天子之所是，皆是之，天子之所非，皆非之。去若不 善言，學天子之善言；去若不善行，學天子之善行， 則天下何說以亂哉！ What the emperor thinks to be right all shall think to be right; what the emperor thinks to be wrong all shall think to be wrong. Take away from your speech that which is not good and learn his good speech. Remove from your conduct that which is not good and learn his good conduct. How then can there be disorder in the empire? 45

46. Main ideas and arguments in Mohism 3. 兼愛 Jian’ai (Kingly love for all) 聖人以治天下為事者也，必知亂之所自起， The wise man who has charge of governing the empire should know the cause of disorder before he can put it in order. 當察亂何自起？起不相愛。臣子之不孝君父，所謂亂 也。子自愛不愛父，故虧父而自利； Suppose we try to locate the cause of disorder, we shall find it lies in the want of mutual love. What is called disorder is just the lack of filial piety on the part of the minister and the son towards the emperor and the father; As he loves himself and not his father the son benefits himself to the disadvantage of his father. 46

47. Main ideas and arguments in Mohism 3. 兼愛 Jian’ai (Kingly love for all) 若使天下兼相愛，國與國不相攻 … If the son of heaven can make every one in the world love with each other, then states not attacking one another. (A) 吾聞為高士於天下者，必為其友之身，若為其身，為 其友之親，若為其親，然後可以為高士於天下。 I have heard that to be a superior man one should take care of his friend as he does of himself, and take care of his friend's parents as his own. Therefore when he finds his friend hungry he would feed him, and when he finds him cold he would clothe him. In his sickness he would serve him, and when he is dead he would bury him. (A) 47

48. Main ideas and arguments in Mohism 4. 非攻 Feigong (Anti-Aggressive War) 今有一人，入人園圃，竊其桃李，眾聞則非之， 上為政者得則罰之。此何也？以虧人自利也。 Suppose a man enters the orchard of another and steals the other's peaches and plums. Hearing of it the public will condemn it; laying hold of him the authorities will punish him. Why? Because he injures others to profit himself. (A) a robber The level of individuals → 48

49. Main ideas and arguments in Mohism 4. 非攻 Feigong (Anti-Aggressive War) 今至大為攻國，則弗知非，從而譽之，謂之義。此 可謂知義與不義之別乎？ But when it comes to the great attack of states, they do not know that they should condemn it. On the contrary, they applaud it, calling it righteous. Can this be said to be knowing the difference between righteousness and unrighteousness? (A) The level of state → admirable action ? 49

50. Main ideas and arguments in Mohism 5. 節用 Jieyong (Thrift of Expenditure) 6. 節葬 Jiezang (Thrift of Funerals) 聖人為政一國，一國可倍也；大之為政天下，天下可 倍也。其倍之非外取地也，因其國家，去其無用之費 ，足以倍之。 When a sage rules a state the benefits of the state will be increased twice. When he governs the empire, those of the empire will be doubled. This increase is not by appropriating land from without. But by cutting out the useless expenditures it is accomplished. In issuing an order, taking up an enterprise, or employing the people and expending wealth, the sage never does anything without some useful purpose. 50

51. Main ideas and arguments in Mohism 9. 非樂 Feiyue (Anti-music) 民有三患：飢者不得食，寒者不得衣，勞者不得息 ，三者民之巨患也。然即當為之撞巨鍾、擊鳴鼓、 彈琴瑟、吹竽笙而揚干戚，民衣食之財將安可得乎 ？即我以為未必然也。 There are three things that the people worry about, namely, that the hungry cannot be fed, that the cold cannot be clothed, and that the tired cannot get rest. These three are the great worries of the people. Now suppose we strike the big bell, beat the sounding drum, play the qin and the se, and blow the yu and the sheng, can the material for food and clothing then be procured for the people? Even I do not think this is possible.(A) 51

52. 曾侯乙編鐘 Bianzhong chimes (excavated from the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng) Wiki Zzjgbc 52

53. Main ideas and arguments in Mohism 7. 天志 Tianzhi (Will of Heaven) 然則天亦何欲何惡？天欲義而惡不義。然則率天下之 百姓以從事於義，則我乃為天之所欲也。我為天之所 欲，天亦為我所欲。 Now, what does Heaven desire and what does it abominate? Heaven desires righteousness and abominates unrighteousness. Therefore, in leading the people in the world to engage in doing righteousness I should be doing what Heaven desires. When I do what Heaven desires, Heaven will also do what I desire. (A) 53

54. Main ideas and arguments in Mohism 7. 天志 Tianzhi (Will of Heaven) 順天意者，兼相愛，交相利，必得賞。反天意者，別 相惡，交相賊，必得罰。 He who obeys the will of Heaven, loving universally and benefiting others, will obtain rewards. He who opposes the will of Heaven, by being partial and unfriendly and harming others, will incur punishment. (A) 天子為善，天能賞之；天子為暴，天能罰之； When the emperor practises virtue Heaven rewards, when the emperor does evil Heaven punishes.(A) 54

55. Main ideas and arguments in Mohism 8. 名鬼 Minggui (Illumination of Ghost) 逮至昔三代聖王既沒，天下失義 … With the passing of the sage-kings of the Three Dynasties, the world lost its righteousness and the feudal lords took might as right. (C) 今若使天下之人，偕若信鬼神之能賞賢而罰暴 也，則夫天下豈亂哉！ If all the people in the world believed that the spirits are able to reward virtue and punish vice, how could the world be in chaos? (C) 55

56. Main ideas and arguments in Mohism 10. 非命 Feiming (Anti-Fatalism) 古者王公大人，為政國家者，皆欲國家之富，人民 之眾，刑政之治。然而不得富而得貧，不得眾而得 寡，不得治而得亂，則是本失其所欲，得其所惡， 是故何也？ ” At present, in governing the states the rulers all desire to have their countries wealthy, their population large, and their administration orderly. But instead of wealth they obtain poverty, instead of an increase they obtain a decrease in population, instead of order they obtain chaos; i.e. they lose what they like but obtain what they dislike. What is the reason for this? (A) 56

57. Main ideas and arguments in Mohism 10. 非命 Feiming (Anti-Fatalism) 執有命者之言曰： “ 上之所賞，命固且賞，非賢故賞也。上之 所罰，命固且罰，不暴故罰也。 ” Now, the fatalists say: "Whoever is rewarded by the superior is destined to be rewarded. It is not because of his virtue that he is rewarded. (A) 執有命者之言曰： “ 上之所罰，命固且罰，不暴故罰也。上之 所賞，命固且賞，非賢故賞也。 ” The fatalists say: “Whoever is punished by the superior is destined to be punished. It is not because of his vice that he is punished.” (A) 57

58. Main ideas and arguments in Mohism 10. 非命 Feiming (Anti-Fatalism) 以此為君則不義，為臣則不忠，為父則不慈，為子則 不孝，為兄則不良，為弟則不弟，而強執此者，此特 凶言之所自生，而暴人之道也。 Believing in this, the ruler would not be righteous, the minister would not be loyal, the father would not be affectionate, the son would not be filial, the elder brother would not be brotherly, and the younger brother would not be respectful. The unnatural adherence to this doctrine is responsible for pernicious ideas and is the way of the wicked. (A) 58

59. Main ideas and arguments in Mohism The Concept of Yi 義 The Concept of Yi 義 In the Analects, the term yi denotes “righteousness” or/and duty (of particular situation.) “ 君臣之義，如之何其廢之？ ” How can a human community do away with the duties that should be observed between sovereign and minister? (Weizi) 59

60. Main ideas and arguments in Mohism: The Concept of Yi 義 In the Book of Mozi, the term Yi has become more general and more significant concept which denotes a kind of “universal ethical norm”, or “justice” which regulates all the human conducts. For Mohists, the concept of Yi is what the Heaven (in the Mohist thought the Heaven was the anthropomorphic supreme god to rule the world) likes and, thus, the ruler of human society has to promote to all the corners of the his empire. 60

61. Main ideas and arguments in Mohism: The Concept of Yi 義 In the Book of Mozi, the term Yi has become more general and more significant concept which denotes a kind of “universal ethical norm”, or “justice” which regulates all the human conducts. For Mohists, the concept of Yi is what the Heaven (in the Mohist thought the Heaven was the anthropomorphic supreme god to rule the world) likes and, thus, the ruler of human society has to promote to all the corners of the his empire. 61

62. The Concept of Yi: 尚同 Shangtong A (Identification to Superior) 是以一人則一義，二人則二義，十人則十義，其人茲眾 ，其所謂義者亦茲眾。是以人是其義，以非人之義，故 文相非也。是以內者父子兄弟作怨惡，離散不能相和合 。 In the beginning of human life, when there was yet no law and government, the custom was "everybody according to his own idea." Accordingly each man had his own idea, two men had two different ideas and ten men had ten different ideas -- the more people the more different notions. And everybody approved of his own view and disapproved the views of others, and so arose mutual disapproval among men. 62

63. The Concept of Yi: 尚同 Shangtong A (Identification to Superior) 是以一人則一義，二人則二義，十人則十義，其人茲眾 ，其所謂義者亦茲眾。是以人是其義，以非人之義，故 文相非也。是以內者父子兄弟作怨惡，離散不能相和合 。 In the beginning of human life, when there was yet no law and government, the custom was "everybody according to his own idea." Accordingly each man had his own idea, two men had two different ideas and ten men had ten different ideas -- the more people the more different notions. And everybody approved of his own view and disapproved the views of others, and so arose mutual disapproval among men. Cf. “Ideas” or “views” in this paragraphs means “ideas or views on what is morally right and what is morally wrong.” 63

64. The Usage of the term “Yi 義 ” 是故古者聖王之為政也，言曰： “ 不義不富，不 義不貴，不義不親，不義不近。 ” 是以國之富貴 人聞之，皆退而謀曰： ‘ 始我所恃者，富貴也， 今上舉義不辟貧賤，然則我不可不為義。 ’ 親者 聞之，亦退而謀曰： ‘ 始我所恃者親也，今上舉 義不辟親疏，然則我不可不為義。 ’ 近者聞之， 亦退而謀曰： ‘ 始我所恃者近也，今上舉義不避 遠，然則我不可不為義。 ’ 遠者聞之，亦退而謀 曰： ‘ 我始以遠為無恃，今上舉義不辟遠，然則 我不可不為義。 ’ 逮至遠鄙郊外之臣，門庭庶子 ，國中之眾、四鄙之萌人聞之，皆競為義。 64

65. The Usage of the term “Yi 義 ”: The Shangxian A Chapter 是故古者聖王之為政也，言曰： “ 不義不富，不 義不貴，不義不親，不義不近。 ” 是以國之富貴 人聞之，皆退而謀曰： ‘ 始我所恃者，富貴也， 今上舉義不辟貧賤，然則我不可不為義。 ’ 親者 聞之，亦退而謀曰： ‘ 始我所恃者親也，今上舉 義不辟親疏，然則我不可不為義。 ’ 近者聞之， 亦退而謀曰： ‘ 始我所恃者近也，今上舉義不避 遠，然則我不可不為義。 ’ 遠者聞之，亦退而謀 曰： ‘ 我始以遠為無恃，今上舉義不辟遠，然則 我不可不為義。 ’ 逮至遠鄙郊外之臣，門庭庶子 ，國中之眾、四鄙之萌人聞之，皆競為義。 65

66. When the ancient sage-kings administered the government they declared: "The unrighteous will not be enriched, the unrighteous will not be honoured, the unrighteous will not be favoured, the unrighteous will not be placed near." Upon hearing this, the rich and honoured of the country all began to deliberate, saying: "What I have been depending on was wealth and honour. Now the Lord promotes the righteous without discrimination against the poor and humble. Hence I may not do unrighteousness." Upon hearing this, the favoured also began to deliberate, saying: "What I have been depending on was favour. Now the Lord promotes the righteous without discrimination against those thus far neglected. Hence I may not do unrighteousness." Upon hearing this, those placed near began to deliberate, saying: "What I have been depending on was intimacy. Now the Lord promotes the righteous without discrimination against the distant. Hence I may not do unrighteousness." Upon hearing this, the distant also began to deliberate, saying : "I used to think, being distant I had nothing to depend on. Now the Lord promotes the righteous without discrimination against the distant. Hence I may not do unrighteousness." Vassals of distant districts as well as youths in the palace, and multitudes within the state boundaries as well as the rustics living on the four borders, upon hearing this, all competed in doing righteousness. 66

67. When the ancient sage-kings administered the government they declared: "The unrighteous will not be enriched, the unrighteous will not be honoured, the unrighteous will not be favoured, the unrighteous will not be placed near." Upon hearing this, the rich and honoured of the country all began to deliberate, saying: "What I have been depending on was wealth and honour. Now the Lord promotes the righteous without discrimination against the poor and humble. Hence I may not do unrighteousness." Upon hearing this, the favoured also began to deliberate, saying: "What I have been depending on was favour. Now the Lord promotes the righteous without discrimination against those thus far neglected. Hence I may not do unrighteousness." Upon hearing this, those placed near began to deliberate, saying: "What I have been depending on was intimacy. Now the Lord promotes the righteous without discrimination against the distant. Hence I may not do unrighteousness." Upon hearing this, the distant also began to deliberate, saying : "I used to think, being distant I had nothing to depend on. Now the Lord promotes the righteous without discrimination against the distant. Hence I may not do unrighteousness." Vassals of distant districts as well as youths in the palace, and multitudes within the state boundaries as well as the rustics living on the four borders, upon hearing this, all competed in doing righteousness. 67

68. The Concept of Yi 義 : Tianzhi 天志 A Chapter 然則天亦何欲何惡？天欲義而惡不義。然則率天 下之百姓以從事於義，則我乃為天之所欲也。我 為天之所欲，天亦為我所欲。 Now, what does Heaven desire and what does it abominate? Heaven desires justice and abominates injustice. Therefore, in leading the people in the world to engage in doing righteousness I should be doing what Heaven desires. When I do what Heaven desires, Heaven will also do what I desire. 68

69. The Concept of Yi 義 : Tianzhi 天志 A Chapter 然則天亦何欲何惡？天欲義而惡不義。然則率天 下之百姓以從事於義，則我乃為天之所欲也。我 為天之所欲，天亦為我所欲。 Now, what does Heaven desire and what does it abominate? Heaven desires justice and abominates injustice. Therefore, in leading the people in the world to engage in doing righteousness I should be doing what Heaven desires. When I do what Heaven desires, Heaven will also do what I desire. 69

70. Main ideas and arguments in Mohism 1. 尚賢 Shangxian (Exaltation of Worthy) 2. 尚同 Shangtong (Identification to Superior) 3. 兼愛 Jian’ai (Kingly love for all) 4. 非攻 Feigong (Anti-Aggressive War) 5. 節用 Jieyong (Thrift of Expenditure) 6. 節葬 Jiezang (Thrift of Furnera) 7. 天志 Tianzhi (Will of Heaven) 8. 名鬼 Minggui (Illumination of Ghost) 9. 非樂 Feiyue (Anti-music) 10. 非命 Feiming (Anti-Fatalism) What is uniqueness of Mohist ideas and arguments in the development of the early Chinese philosophy? 70

71. Main ideas and arguments in Mohism 1. 尚賢 Shangxian (Exaltation of Worthy) 2. 尚同 Shangtong (Identification to Superior) 3. 兼愛 Jian’ai (Kingly love for all) 4. 非攻 Feigong (Anti-Aggressive War) 5. 節用 Jieyong (Thrift of Expenditure) 6. 節葬 Jiezang (Thrift of Furnera) 7. 天志 Tianzhi (Will of Heaven) 8. 名鬼 Minggui (Illumination of Ghost) 9. 非樂 Feiyue (Anti-music) 10. 非命 Feiming (Anti-Fatalism) What is uniqueness of Mohist ideas and arguments in the development of the early Chinese philosophy? 71

72. Main ideas and arguments in Mohism (1) Welfare of people → Anti-aggressive War → Economical use of resources →Anti-music, and Anti-extravagant funerals (2) Socio-politico-ethical order →Kingly love beyond blood relationships (3) Hierarchical practice of ethical duty (4) Establishment of Heaven-ancestral spirits- human order →presentation of “unified” a new political order of the whole Chinese world (tianxia 天下 ) 72

73. Main ideas and arguments in Mohism (1) Welfare of people Compared to the early Confucian lukewarm attitude toward the issue on maintaining the certain level of welfare of the ruled people, Mohists has clearly presented some concrete policy blueprints for protecting the life of people. Among them, “anti- aggressive” and “economical use of resources” are the most representative policies. Mohist opposition against the music and funeral was derived from the situation in which gorgeous music performance and the practice of extravagant funeral ceremony would always harm the life of ruled people. 73

74. Main ideas and arguments in Mohism (2) Socio-politico-ethical order The early Confucian saw a society as a combination of aristocratic clans, or of sub- communities of blood relationships. In such a view, the obedience to the norm of filial piety (xiao 孝 ) and fraternity (ti 悌 ) was to be central for establish a communal order. →cf. 孝弟也者，其為仁之本與 ! “Filial piety and fraternal submission! - are they not the root of all benevolent actions !” (“Xue’er 學而 ” Chapter, the Ananects) 74

75. Main ideas and arguments in Mohism (2) Socio-politico-ethical order Mohist image of society covered the people beyond the restriction of one country, and also beyond the only combination of communities of blood-relationships. → cf. Kiyoshi Akatsuka 赤塚忠 : In early Chinese thought, Mohists were the first thinkers who possessed rather a clear image to what we call “society.’” 75

76. Main ideas and arguments in Mohism (2) Socio-politico-ethical order The Mohist idea of “Kingly love for all ” (jian’ai 兼愛 ) represented their vision of a society which would be linked not only by blood relationship, but also by the peoples of various social strata and professions. Their idea of “Anti-war”(feigong 非攻 ) envisioned a sort of “world community” which was beyond a prevalent image of the inter- state system in which warfare was an indispensable and even necessary part for interaction of states. 76

77. Main ideas and arguments in Mohism (3) Hierarchical practice of ethical duty Another significant aspect of the Mohist idea of society was consisted in a strict hierarchical structure from Heaven, an anthropomorphic supreme god, at the top, through the Son of Heaven, feudal lords, magistrates, community or clan leaders down to multitude. Mohists argued that the ethical principle (i.e., idea of yi 義 ) must be penetrated throughout that hierarchical order. In other words, It was moral duty and justice by which a whole society would be maintained with order and peace. 77

78. Main ideas and arguments in Mohism (4) Establishment of Heaven-ancestral spirits- human order In ancient China, a state community was imaged as a combination of ancestral spirits and living offspring. Mohists enhanced, and even rendered this image universal by setting the concept of Heaven at the central ruling position, as well as arguing that the ancestral spirits would have intelligence and power to correctly respond both virtuous and vice human conducts. 78

79. Main ideas and arguments in Mohism (4) Establishment of Heaven-ancestral spirits- human order In particular, Mohists attempted to get the rulers and people of their time to practice what Mohist has regarded as moral and ideal by inculcating into their minds the image of the supreme authority of Heaven as well as the intelligence and power of ancestral spirits. Having viewing this aspect, modern scholars have often conceived the rise of Mohism as a revival of the image of religious authorities in early Chinese intellectual tradition. 79

80. Four observable tensions in Mohist Doctrine (1) Mohists argued that the all people were to be treated as a member of one’s family. But they have still admitted the importance of family relationship. Cf.1 A Mohist Yizhi in the Book of Mencius Cf.2 “Communism” in the Plato’s Repulblic (2) Can Mohists dissuade a lord from waging a aggressive war. However, Mohists supported the war which would conquest a tyrant whose rule has gone against the welfare of his people. What the standard for diciding it? 80

81. Four observable tensions in Mohist Doctrine (3) Mohists’ denial of fatalism had a certain effect for driving people into doing good and avoiding bad things. However, its theoretical basis was the point that Heaven and ghosts will not fail to respond correctly human conducts by giving reward and punishment. cf.→ Max Weber’s paradoxical argument on the causal relationship between Puritan fatalism and the birth of capitalism (in his The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism) However, in spite of their desperate “demonstration” on the point that ghosts should exist, many Chinese intellectuals did not seem to be persuaded by their anti-fatalism argument. 81

82. Four observable tensions in Mohist Doctrine (3) 子墨子有疾，跌鼻進而問曰：先生以鬼神為明， 能為禍福，為善者賞之，為不善者罰之。今先生聖人 也，何故有疾？意者先生之言有不善乎？鬼神不明知 乎？ ” 子墨子曰： “ 雖使我有病，何遽不明？人之所得 於病者多方，有得之寒暑，有得之勞苦，百門而閉一 門焉，則盜何遽無從入？ ” ( 公孟篇 ) 82

83. Four observable tensions in Mohist Doctrine (3) Our Supreme Master Mo was sick. Die Bi came and inquired: “Sir, you have taught the ghosts and spirits are intelligent and are in control of calamity and blessing. They will reward the good and punish the evil. Now you are a sage. How can you become sick? Can it be that your teaching was not entirely correct, that the ghosts and spirits are after all unintelligent? Master Mo said: “Though I am sick how (does it follow that the ghosts and spirits) should be unintelligent? There are many ways by which a man can contract diseases. Some are affected by climate, some by fatigue. If there are a hundred gates and only one of them is closed, how is it that the burglar should not be able to get in? 83

84. Four observable tensions in Mohist Doctrine (4) It is unquestionable that Mohists certainly contributed greatly to the development of moral argumentation. However, when they once discuss how a ruler should promote the state-wide practice of ethical principle, Mohists did not present any explanation on how a person should observe moral principle, but just bring about the super-human authorities, and reward and punishment corresponding to good and bad deed. A paradox was those who hold moral principle in one’s mind a would act virtuously without any external motivation such as reward and punishment. 84

85. Questions and further discussions (1) Do you think Mohist doctrine supports the walfare of the ruled people, or just serve for the enhancement of state power more? (2) Which do you conceive of Mohist socio- political theory as conservative or innovative? (3) Try to conjecture the reason that Mohist was so dominant during the Warring State period, but later disappeared “completely”. 85

86. Introduction to Classical Chinese Philosophy Introduction to Classical Chinese Philosophy Thank you very much! Lecture Five The Growth of Ethical Discourse: The Book of Mozi The Book of Mozi 86

87. Copyright Declaration Work Licensing Author/ Source http://www.ljhis.com/html/700.html The work is in the public domain, resulting from the intellectual property rights have expired 孔子燕居像，〔明〕佚名曲阜孔府藏 The work is in the public domain, resulting from the intellectual property rights have expired. The wise man who has charge of governing the empire should know the cause of disorder before he can put it in order. This work comes from Chinese Text Project, http://ctext.org/mozi/universal- love-I, edited by Donald Sturgeon, English translated by W. P. Mei, and used in accordance with the FAQ of Chinese Text Project by GEThttp://ctext.org/mozi/universal- love-Ithe FAQ of Chinese Text Project The supreme master Mozi said: The purpose of the magnanimous is to be found in procuring benefits for the world and eliminating its calamities. This work comes from Chinese Text Project, http://ctext.org/mozi/universal- love-ii, edited by Donald Sturgeon, English translated by W. P. Mei, and used in accordance with the FAQ of Chinese Text Project by GEThttp://ctext.org/mozi/universal- love-iithe FAQ of Chinese Text Project The Supreme master Mozi said: The purpose of the magnanimous lies in procuring benefits for the world and eliminating its calamities. This work comes from Chinese Text Project, http://ctext.org/mozi/universal- love-ii, edited by Donald Sturgeon, English translated by W. P. Mei, and used in accordance with the FAQ of Chinese Text Project by GEThttp://ctext.org/mozi/universal- love-iithe FAQ of Chinese Text Project National Taiwan University Masayuki Sato 87

88. Copyright Declaration Work Licensing Author/ Source National Taiwan University Masayuki Sato 頁 36-39 This work comes from Chinese Text Project, http://ctext.org/mozi/exaltation- of-the-virtuous-i, edited by Donald Sturgeon, English translated by W. P. Mei, and used in accordance with the FAQ of Chinese Text Project by GEThttp://ctext.org/mozi/exaltation- of-the-virtuous-ithe FAQ of Chinese Text Project Now, all the rulers desire their provinces to be wealthy, their people to be numerous, and their jurisdiction to secure order This work comes from Chinese Text Project, http://ctext.org/mozi/anti- fatalism-I, edited by Donald Sturgeon, English translated by W. P. Mei, and used in accordance with the FAQ of Chinese Text Project by GEThttp://ctext.org/mozi/anti- fatalism-Ithe FAQ of Chinese Text Project When the virtuous are numerous in the state, order will be stable; when the virtuous are scarce, order will be unstable. This work comes from Chinese Text Project, http://ctext.org/mozi/book-2, edited by Donald Sturgeon, English translated by W. P. Mei, and used in accordance with the FAQ of Chinese Text Project by GEThttp://ctext.org/mozi/book-2the FAQ of Chinese Text Project 頁 43 This work comes from Chinese Text Project, http://ctext.org/mozi/identification-with-the-superior-i, edited by Donald Sturgeon, English translated by W. P. Mei, and used in accordance with the FAQ of Chinese Text Project by GET http://ctext.org/mozi/identification-with-the-superior-ithe FAQ of Chinese Text Project 88

89. Copyright Declaration Work Licensing Author/ Source What the emperor thinks to be right all shall think to be right; what the emperor thinks to be wrong all shall think to be wrong. Take away from your speech that which is not good and learn his good speech. Remove from your conduct that which is not good and learn his good conduct. How then can there be disorder in the empire? This work comes from Chinese Text Project, http://ctext.org/mozi/identification-with-the-superior-i, edited by Donald Sturgeon, English translated by W. P. Mei, and used in accordance with the FAQ of Chinese Text Project by GET http://ctext.org/mozi/identification-with-the-superior-ithe FAQ of Chinese Text Project 頁 45 This work comes from Chinese Text Project, http://ctext.org/mozi/universal-love-I, edited by Donald Sturgeon, English translated by W. P. Mei, and used in accordance with the FAQ of Chinese Text Project by GET http://ctext.org/mozi/universal-love-Ithe FAQ of Chinese Text Project If the son of heaven can make every one in the world love with each other, then states not attacking one another. This work comes from Chinese Text Project, http://ctext.org/mozi/universal-love-I, edited by Donald Sturgeon, English translated by W. P. Mei, and used in accordance with the FAQ of Chinese Text Project by GET http://ctext.org/mozi/universal-love-Ithe FAQ of Chinese Text Project I have heard that to be a superior man one should take care of his friend as he does of himself, and take care of his friend's parents as his own. Therefore when he finds his friend hungry he would feed him, and when he finds him cold he would clothe him. In his sickness he would serve him, and when he is dead he would bury him. This work comes from Chinese Text Project, http://ctext.org/mozi/universal-love-iii, edited by Donald Sturgeon, English translated by W. P. Mei, and used in accordance with the FAQ of Chinese Text Project by GET http://ctext.org/mozi/universal-love-iiithe FAQ of Chinese Text Project 頁 48-49 This work comes from Chinese Text Project, http://ctext.org/mozi/condemnation-of-offensive-war-i, edited by Donald Sturgeon, English translated by W. P. Mei, and used in accordance with the FAQ of Chinese Text Project by GET http://ctext.org/mozi/condemnation-of-offensive-war-ithe FAQ of Chinese Text Project 89

90. Copyright Declaration Work Licensing Author/ Source 頁 50 This work comes from Chinese Text Project, http://ctext.org/mozi/economy-of-expenditures-i, edited by Donald Sturgeon, English translated by W. P. Mei, and used in accordance with the FAQ of Chinese Text Project by GET http://ctext.org/mozi/economy-of-expenditures-ithe FAQ of Chinese Text Project Wiki Zzjgbc http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bianzhong.jpg 2011/11/17 visited. 頁 53 This work comes from Chinese Text Project, http://ctext.org/mozi/condemnation-of-music-i, edited by Donald Sturgeon, English translated by W. P. Mei, and used in accordance with the FAQ of Chinese Text Project by GET http://ctext.org/mozi/condemnation-of-music-ithe FAQ of Chinese Text Project 頁 54 This work comes from Chinese Text Project, http://ctext.org/mozi/will-of-heaven-i, edited by Donald Sturgeon, English translated by W. P. Mei, and used in accordance with the FAQ of Chinese Text Project by GET http://ctext.org/mozi/will-of-heaven-ithe FAQ of Chinese Text Project He who obeys the will of Heaven, loving universally and benefiting others, will obtain rewards. He who opposes the will of Heaven, by being partial and unfriendly and harming others, will incur punishment. This work comes from Chinese Text Project, http://ctext.org/mozi/will-of-heaven-i, edited by Donald Sturgeon, English translated by W. P. Mei, and used in accordance with the FAQ of Chinese Text Project by GET http://ctext.org/mozi/will-of-heaven-ithe FAQ of Chinese Text Project 90

91. Copyright Declaration Work Licensing Author/ Source When the emperor practises virtue Heaven rewards, when the emperor does evil Heaven punishes. This work comes from Chinese Text Project, http://ctext.org/mozi/will-of-heaven-ii, edited by Donald Sturgeon, English translated by W. P. Mei, and used in accordance with the FAQ of Chinese Text Project by GET http://ctext.org/mozi/will-of-heaven-iithe FAQ of Chinese Text Project With the passing of the sage-kings of the Three Dynasties, the world lost its righteousness and the feudal lords took might as right. This work comes from Chinese Text Project, http://ctext.org/mozi/simplicity-in-funerals-iii, edited by Donald Sturgeon, English translated by W. P. Mei, and used in accordance with the FAQ of Chinese Text Project by GET http://ctext.org/mozi/simplicity-in-funerals-iiithe FAQ of Chinese Text Project If all the people in the world believed that the spirits are able to reward virtue and punish vice, how could the world be in chaos? This work comes from Chinese Text Project, http://ctext.org/mozi/on-ghosts-iii, edited by Donald Sturgeon, English translated by W. P. Mei, and used in accordance with the FAQ of Chinese Text Project by GET http://ctext.org/mozi/on-ghosts-iiithe FAQ of Chinese Text Project 頁 56-58 This work comes from Chinese Text Project, http://ctext.org/mozi/anti-fatalism-i, edited by Donald Sturgeon, English translated by W. P. Mei, and used in accordance with the FAQ of Chinese Text Project by GET http://ctext.org/mozi/anti-fatalism-ithe FAQ of Chinese Text Project How can a human community do away with the duties that should be observed between sovereign and minister? This work comes from Chinese Text Project, http://ctext.org/analects/wei-zi, edited by Donald Sturgeon, English translated by W. P. Mei, and used in accordance with the FAQ of Chinese Text Project by GET http://ctext.org/analects/wei-zithe FAQ of Chinese Text Project 91

92. Copyright Declaration WorkLicensing Author/ Source 頁 62-63 This work comes from Chinese Text Project, http://ctext.org/mozi/identification-with-the-superior-i, edited by Donald Sturgeon, English translated by W. P. Mei, and used in accordance with the FAQ of Chinese Text Project by GET http://ctext.org/mozi/identification-with-the-superior-ithe FAQ of Chinese Text Project 頁 66-67 This work comes from Chinese Text Project, http://ctext.org/mozi/exaltation-of-the-virtuous-i, edited by Donald Sturgeon, English translated by W. P. Mei, and used in accordance with the FAQ of Chinese Text Project by GET http://ctext.org/mozi/exaltation-of-the-virtuous-ithe FAQ of Chinese Text Project 頁 68-69 This work comes from Chinese Text Project, http://ctext.org/mozi/will-of-heaven-i, edited by Donald Sturgeon, English translated by W. P. Mei, and used in accordance with the FAQ of Chinese Text Project by GET http://ctext.org/mozi/will-of-heaven-ithe FAQ of Chinese Text Project 頁 83 This work comes from Chinese Text Project, http://ctext.org/mozi/gong-meng, edited by Donald Sturgeon, English translated by W. P. Mei, and used in accordance with the FAQ of Chinese Text Project by GET http://ctext.org/mozi/gong-mengthe FAQ of Chinese Text Project 92