1. Chapter 8
Political Geography

2. How is Space Politically Organized into states and nations?
Physical geography - Today political geographers spend time studying
the spatial assumptions and structures underlying politics,
the ways people organize space,
the role territory plays in politics,
and the political problems that result from the circumstances.
How is space politically organize into states and nations?
political geography is study of political organizations of the world.
Study of spatial manifestations of political processes at various scales.
Global scale countries are called states.
States are politically organized territory with permanent population, defined territory, and a government. 
 To be a state, must be recognized as such but other states.
There are more than 200 countries (states) and territories.
States are mosaics on the map the represent a way of politically organizing space.
This is a new phenomena that has only existed for about 400 years. 

3. How is Space Politically Organized into states and nations?
Boundaries are made, shaped, and refined by people, their actions and their history.
Central to the state is the concept of territoriality.
Robert Sack defines this as:
an attempt by an individual or group to affect, influence, but control people, phenomena and relationships by delimiting this and asserting control over geographic area.
He sees this is a key ingredient to the construction of social and political spaces. His approach differs from social anthropologist Robert Ardrey- the territorial imperative 1966. 
 Human territoriality is analogous to the instinct and animals to control and defend territory.
Sack disagrees-argues that human territoriality takes many different forms, depending on the social and geographical context, should not be compared to animal instincts. He calls for better understanding of human organization of the planet through the questions of how and why different territorial strategies are pursued at different times in different places

4. How is Space Politically Organized into states and nations?
Political geographers –
study how people change the way territory is expressed and how ideas of territoriality very over space and time
concept is tied closely to sovereignty
This implies an expression of control over a territory.
International law, concept of sovereignty is territorially defined.
Means having the last say over territory both politically and militarily.
International law give states the right to territorial integrity defend against encroachment from other states.
Modern idea that began in the mid-17th century in Europe and defused to the rest of the world.

5. How is Space Politically Organized into states and nations?
the Modern State idea
traces of the state idea go back to millennia
On the shores of the Mediterranean Sea-distinct kingdoms emerge
Greek philosophy influences the idea of the state.
In the Middle Ages the first states in Wales were small in size but had attributes of the modern state.
Mercantilism-the idea that the accumulation of wealth through colonization protection of home industries, plundering , maintenance of foreign markets contributed to the emergence of the modern political state.
The Peace of Westphalia a treaty between the princes of different states within the Holy Roman Empire. This treaty ended the 30 Years War and recognize the rights of rulers within defined, demarcated territories.
This gave rise to the political-territorial order that spread throughout Western and Central Europe.

6. How is Space Politically Organized into states and nations?
the Modern State idea
Territory is treated as a fixed element of political identification
states are defined as exclusive non-overlapping territories
State rulers were sovereign over their territories and the people who inhabited them
The growth of the middle class eventually led to the end of absolute rule in western Europe.
As urban merchants gain wealth and prestige the nobility declined.
Merchants and businessmen demanded political recognition.
French Revolution of 1789 was conducted in the name of the French people and allowed for the foundation of political authority to be seen as resting with the state citizenry not with hereditary monarchs.

7. How is Space Politically Organized into states and nations?
political geographers use state and country interchangeably.
State is a legal term in international law.
Nation on the other hand is a culturally defined term and few people agree on exactly what it means.
Nation = group of people who think of themselves as one based on a sense of shared culture and history and seek some degree of political territorial autonomy.
Some view themselves as sharing religion, language, ethnicity, or history.
How nations are defined depends on the people who view themselves as being part of it.  `

8. How is Space Politically Organized into states and nations?
People in a nation look to their past, and see themselves as have been through many things together.
They are identified by their own membership, therefore they cannot simply be viewed as a people within a territory.
Example Belgium-two nations the Flemish in the Walloons.
Nations are constructed - people create them to give themselves an identity at a certain scale.
Benedict Anderson-defines nation as an imagined community: imagine because you'll never meet all the people in your nation and community but you still see your self as part of a collective.

9. How is Space Politically Organized into states and nations?
Nation-States
A politically organized area in which the nation and the state occupy the same space.
Few if any states our nation states.
States and their governments desire a unified nation-attempt to create stability and to replace other identities that may challenge the state.
Problem with the idea of the nation-state is that it assumes the presence of a reasonably well-defined, stable nation living contiguously within discrete territories.
The quest to form nation-states in Europe in the 1800s is associated with the rise of nationalism.
Two viewpoints of nationalism-
when people in a nation have a strong loyalty to the nation and the belief in it. This loyalty does not necessarily coincide with the state's borders.
state does not have a strong sense of nationalism, rather the government of the state is nationalistic. 

10. How is Space Politically Organized into states and nations?
Nation-States
The government promotes the nation, and it represents the state, seeks to promote a nation that coincides with its borders.
A state with more than one nation within its borders can attempt to build a single national identity and divergent people within its borders in the name of nationalism.
It may promote war against another state that threatens its territorial integrity.
Conversely people who see themselves as a separate nation within another state are often encouraged to form movements attempting to separate themselves and achieve independence. 
1600s European leaders use the tool of nationalism to strengthen the state.
In the process of creating nation-states in Europe : absorb smaller entities into their borders, resolve conflict by force and negotiation, and defined borders.
States provided security, goods, and services to the citizens to encourage their support of the state.

11. How is Space Politically Organized into states and nations?
Nation-States
They support education, infrastructure, healthcare, and a military to preserve the state in an effort to build a nation-state.
Colonization in Africa and Asia in the late 1800s
used as a way to promote nationalism
engender feelings of pride in the state, in the nation, and in its vast empire.
by identifying against an “other” the state and the people helped identify the traits of their nation.

12. How is Space Politically Organized into states and nations?
Multistate Nations, Multinational States, Stateless Nations
Nearly every state in the world is a multinational state.
A state with more than one nation inside of its borders.
When a nation stretches across borders and across states the nation is called a multistate nation.
Example-Romania and Hungary-they have overlapping nations.
Both claim Transylvania as a territory that should be part of their state.
Today Transylvania is populated by both Romanians and Hungarians, both states claim and desire the right to control the territory.
Both have places within Transylvania that they see is important to their history and culture.
According to George White, a political geographer, “the control and maintenance of a territory is as crucial as the control and maintenance of the national language, religion or way of life. Indeed language, religion, and way of life is difficult to maintain without control over territory.” 

13. How is Space Politically Organized into states and nations?
Multistate Nations, Multinational States, Stateless Nations
Stateless nation
nations that do not have a state - Palestinians for example.
Although they have gained control of the Gaza Strip and fragments of the Occupied Territories - areas that may form a future state - over half of that 8 million Palestinians live in other states.
Another example is Kurdistan
27 million Kurds live in this area that covers part of six states
after the 1991 Gulf War the United Nations established the Kurdish security zone
Kurds are the largest minority in Turkey, their official capital is Diyarbakir relations
between the Kurds in the Turkish government have been volatile

14. How is Space Politically Organized into states and nations?
Colonialism
European colonialism and the diffusion of the nation-state model
Spain, Portugal, Britain, France, Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, Italy, all established overseas colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Americas in 1700s s.
Berlin conference arbitrary lines drawn to divide the continent of Africa.
Mode is for colonization included economic profit as well as proselytization in the spread of Christianity.
By controlling such a large share of the world Europeans laid the ground rules for the emerging international state system.
It also laid the ground rules of the capitalist world economy, creating economic interdependence that persists to this day.
At the height of colonialism, imperial powers exercised ruthless control over their domains and organized them for maximum economic exploitation. 

15. How is Space Politically Organized into states and nations?
Colonialism
Populations were regimented and service to the colonial ruler.
Flows of raw materials were diverted back to Europe for the colonizers benefit, evidence of this organization can so be seen in the cultural landscape today.
When colonialism ended the political organization of space and the global world economy remain.
Although former colonies are independent-their economies are not.
Raw material still flows out of the countries via major ports developed by the colonizers. These countries are export focused, the global corporations responsible for building much of the city and housing that surround the ports

16. How is Space Politically Organized into states and nations?
Construction of the capitalist world economy
result of colonialism - global order which is characterized by large differences in economic and political power.
Is a globalized economic order where European states and areas dominated by European migrants have emerged as the major centers of economic and political activity.
Europeans use the extracted wealth from the colonies to create a subservient relationship with the areas that were colonized.
Unlike Western Europe Russian United States expanded their territory over land instead of oversee, taking territory and subjugating the indigenous people.
Japan was a regional colonial power, controlling Korea & parts of Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands.
The concentration of wealth brought to Europe and parts of the world dominated by Europeans is at the heart of the highly uneven global distribution of power that is still with us today.
The world economy-wealth is unevenly distributed.

17. How is Space Politically Organized into states and nations?
Construction of the capitalist world economy
Over the last decades social scientists have attempted to understand how each country and locality fit into the picture of the world as a whole.
In order to do this geographer's list considers scale and study how countries affect one another.
Emanuel Wallerstein-
propose the world systems theory where he viewed the world is more than the sum total of the world states
From his viewpoint in order to understand any state, we must understand it's spatial and functional relationship within the world economy.
Three basic tenets of the world systems theory-
1- the world economy has one market and a global division of labor. This began with the capitalist exchange in the 1450s and encompass the globe by 1900.
Capitalism-people corporations and states produce goods and exchange them on the world market, with the goal of achieving profit. This leads to producers seeking the cheapest labor, drawing from the globe.
The results-production of goods move around the world to take advantage of the cheapest labor in order to gain the most profit. 

18. How is Space Politically Organized into states and nations?
Construction of the capitalist world economy
Commodification-process of placing a price on a good and then buying, selling, and trading the good.
Example buying bottles of water. In the past no one would have conceived that individuals we would be willing to buy individual bottles of water.
2- although the world has multiple states almost everything takes place within the context of the world economy.
This is a result of colonialism.
Gaining economic independence by any nation at this point is simply impossible.
The economies of the world are to intertwined.
This generates intended and unintended consequences.
3 - the world economy has a three tier structure.
The Core, Periphery , and Semi-Periphery.
core incorporates high levels of education, higher salaries, and more technology. These generate more wealth in the world economy.
The periphery incorporate lower levels of education, lower salaries, and less technology. They generate less wealth in the world economy

19. The World Economy

20. How is Space Politically Organized into states and nations?
Construction of the capitalist world economy
They do this by taking advantage of cheap labor or lax environmental standards.
The semi-periphery acts as a buffer between the core in the periphery and helps to prevent the world from being polarized into two extremes.
Political geographers, economic geographers, and others continue to debate the world systems theory.
Major concerns-over emphasizes economic factors in the political development and that is very state centric.
World systems theory helps explain how colonial powers were able to amass great concentrations of wealth.
During the first wave of colonialism mercantilism contributed to the wealth accumulation.
During the second wave after The Industrial revolution colonizers were more focused on cheap industrial labor, raw materials, and large-scale agricultural plantations.
Not all core countries today were colonial powers. Examples- Switzerland, Singapore, Australia.
These countries gain their positions through access to networks of production, consumption, and exchange in the wealthiest parts of the world and their ability to take advantage of that access

21. How is Space Politically Organized into states and nations?
World-Systems and Political Power
Is economic power and political power the same.
No, but economic power can bring political power.
Economic power means wealth, political power means the ability to influence others in order to achieve your goals.
Political power is not defined by sovereignty.
Not all states have the same ability to influence others.
Wealth helps leaders amass political power.
You can also help establish military power
Switzerland is a neutral country, combined with its economic strength, it aids the countries diplomatic efforts.
Enduring impact of the nation-state
Major players in international relations still see the validity of dividing nations with state borders-or creating nation-states.

22. How do states spatially organize their governments?
Forces within states that unify people are centripetal and the forces that divide them are centrifugal.
A nation's ability to exist depends on the balance between centripetal and centrifugal forces.
Timing, scale, interaction, and perspective factor into unification and division in a state at any given point. 
Governments attempt to unify state through nation-building, structuring governments in a way that melds the nation within, defining and defending boundaries, through the expression of control of the territory within those boundaries.
Form of government
to promote unification states choose governmental structures that promote nation-building and quell divisions within.
Primarily resorting to two structures either unitary or federal.
Unitary governments -highly centralized, capital city serving as the focus of power. Make no efforts to accommodate minorities or outlying regions. Culturally the capital city defines the nation's culture.
Smaller nations within states tend to be repressed and suppressed. Administrative framework is designed to ensure central government's authority over all parts of the state 

23. How do states spatially organize their governments?
Form of Government
Unitary example = France - 90 departments, representatives come to Paris not to express regional concerns rather to implement government decisions back home.
Federal systems - organize territory into regions, sub-states, provinces, or cantons.
strong federal systems- regions have much control over government policies and funds
weak federal systems, have little control over government policies and funds.
Most federal systems lie somewhere in between.
By giving control over certain policies a government can keep the state as a whole together.
For example the United States-states have different approaches to things such as the death penalty, access to alcohol, the right to carry concealed weapons.

24. How do states spatially organize their governments?
Form of Government
Federalism accommodates regional interests by vesting primary power and provinces, states, or other regional units.
Typically they have power over all matters except those explicitly given to the central government.
Federation does not create unity out of diversity, rather, it enables the two to coexist.
Choosing a federal system does not always quell nationalist sentiment.
Devolution
is the movement of power from the central government to regional governments within the state.
Example - United Kingdom, the Northern Ireland assembly resulted from devolution
forces of devolution can arise from several sources: ethnic cultural, economic, and spatial.
Ethnocultural devolutionary movements-
many of Europe's devolution movements came from nations within the state the define themselves as being ethnically, linguistically, or religiously distinct.
Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.
The Velvet Divorce

26. How do states spatially organize their governments?
Devolution
Czechs and Slovaks divided the country along a new international border.
In other parts of the world at the cultural fragmentation is producing costly wars.
Sudan-Muslim north non-Muslim South. (portioned but not yet independent)
Sri Lanka-the scene of these Buddhists majority has attempted to suppress the Tamil Hindu minority.
China-Tibetan separatist movements
United Kingdom-Scotland managed the right to secure its own Parliament. At the heart of most devolutionary movements, however, is a strong sense of ethnic cultural or economic difference.
Economic devolution forces-
Catalonia, ethnocultural differences play a significant role
Catalonian's also cite economics; although they only have 6% of Spain's territory they produce 25% of all exports by value and 40% of its industrial exports.
Italy-the Island of Sardinia has been demanding autonomy for economic circumstances, they accuse the government in Rome of neglecting them.
The Mezzogiorno region lies in the south. 
The wealthier north stands in sharp contrast to the poor south.
The development gap between North and South is widening.

27. How do states spatially organize their governments?
Devolution
Brazil-in the 90’s a separatist movement emerged where those in the south complained the government was misspending their tax money and assistance to Amazonia.
Southerners found a leader, manufactured a flag, and demanded independence for the Republic of the Pampas .
Government response-outlawed separatist political party. 
Spatial influences on devolution- most devolutionary movements have at least one feature in common: they most often occur on the margins of the state. 
Typically on the coast or on a border.
Distance, remoteness, marginal location, are all allies of devolution.
Typically regions seeking devolution are far from the national capital.
Many are separated by water, desert, or mountains.
Often they adjoin neighbors that may support their separatist objectives. 
Feelings of remoteness can be fueled by being isolated in a valley or separated by mountains or a river.
Basic physical geographic and locational factors cannot speak Ian greedy and the devolutionary process.

29. How do states spatially organize their governments?
Devolution
United States faces its most serious devolutionary pressures on the Island of Hawaii.
1993 Marked the 100 year anniversary of the US is annexation of the island.
Vocal minority of native Hawaiians demand the return of rights lost during the occupation.
They demand the reestablishment of an independent state of Hawaii.
Their hope is that ultimately the Island of Hawaii, consider their ancestral land, will become a component of the independent Hawaiian state.
At present the natives do not have the numbers, resources, or influence to achieve their goal but the potential does exist.
Hawaiian Independence Action Alliance

32. Supernationalism