1. Chapter One: CHEMICAL FOUNDATIONS 講義

2. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 2 What we’ll learn in Chapter 1 Chemistry overview Science, theory and law, experiment Measurement, SI units and unit conversion, prefixes of numbers Significant figures, rounding rules, precision and accuracy, errors (systematic or random) Classification of matter, states of matter, purification and separation Physical change, chemical change

3. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 3 Assignment 11,18,27,32,59,70,71,85

4. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 4 Chemistry: An Overview A main challenge of chemistry is to understand the connection between the macroscopic world that we experience and the microscopic world of atoms and molecules. You must learn to think on the atomic level. 1.1

5. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 5 Atoms vs. Molecules 1.1

6. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 6 Oxygen and Hydrogen Molecules 1.1

7. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 7 A Chemical Reaction 1.1

8. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 8 A Chemical Reaction 1.1

9. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 9 Science Science is a framework for gaining and organizing knowledge. Science is a plan of action—a procedure for processing and understanding certain types of information. 1.2

10. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 10 The Various Parts of the Scientific Method (?) (!)

11. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 11 Law vs. Theory A law summarizes what happens. A theory (model) is an attempt to explain why it happens. 1.2

12. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 12 Post-it note: a nice story of doing chemistry Making observations Formulating hypotheses Performing experiments How to make sticky-but-not-too-sticky adhesives? Too sticky Not sticky enough Right!

13. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 13 Nature of Measurement Measurement – quantitative observation consisting of two parts:  Number  Scale (unit) Examples:  20 grams  6.63 × 10 -34  6.63 × 10 -34 joule·seconds 1.3

14. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 14 The Fundamental SI Units Physical QuantityName of UnitAbbreviation Masskilogramkg Lengthmeterm Timeseconds TemperaturekelvinK Electric currentampereA Amount of substancemolemol Luminous intensitycandelacd 1.3

15. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 15 Table 1.1 The Fundamental SI Units

16. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 16 Table 1.2 The Prefixes Used in the SI System

17. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 17 Table 1.3 Some Examples of Commonly Used Units

18. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 18 Table 1.4 English-Metric Equivalents

19. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 19 Artist's Conception of the Lost Mars Climate Orbiter

20. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 20 Uncertainty in Measurement A digit that must be estimated is called uncertain. A measurement always has some degree of uncertainty. Record the certain digits and the first uncertain digit (the estimated number). 1.4

21. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 21 Measurement of Volume Using a Buret 1.4

22. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 22 Precision and Accuracy Accuracy – agreement of a particular value with the true value Precision – degree of agreement among several measurements of the same quantity 1.4

23. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 23 Precision and Accuracy

24. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 24 Rules for Counting Significant Figures Nonzero integers always count as significant figures: 3456 has 4 sig figs 1.5

25. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 25 Rules for Counting Significant Figures (continued) Leading zeros do not count as significant figures: 0.048 has 2 sig figs 1.5

26. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 26 Rules for Counting Significant Figures (continued) Captive zeros always count as significant figures: 16.07 has 4 sig figs 1.5

27. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 27 Rules for Counting Significant Figures (continued) Trailing zeros are significant only if the number contains a decimal point: 9.300 has 4 sig figs 150 has 2 sig figs 1.5

28. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 28 Rules for Counting Significant Figures (continued) Exact numbers have an infinite number of significant figures:  1 inch = 2.54 cm, exactly  9 pencils (obtained by counting) 1.5

29. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 29 Sig Figs in Mathematical Operations For multiplication or division, the number of significant figures in the result is the same as the number in the calculation that has the fewest significant figures: 1.342 × 5.5 = 7.381  7.4 1.5

30. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 30 Sig Figs in Mathematical Operations (continued) For addition or subtraction, the result has the same number of decimal places as the measurement with the fewest number of decimal places: 23.445 + 7.83 =31.275  31.28 1.5

31. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 31 Concept Check You have water in each graduated cylinder shown. You then add both samples to a beaker. How would you write the number describing the total volume? What limits the precision of this number?

32. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 32 Dimensional Analysis Use when converting a given result from one system of units to another: –Use the equivalence statement that relates the two units –Consider the direction of the required change to select the correct unit factor (cancel unwanted units) –Multiply the quantity to be converted by the unit factor 1.6

33. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 33 Concept Check What data would you need to estimate the money you would spend on gasoline to drive your car from New York to Chicago? Provide estimates of values and a sample calculation. 1.6

34. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 34 Temperature Three systems for measuring temperature: –Fahrenheit –Celsius –Kelvin 1.7

35. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 35 The Three Major Temperature Scales 1.7

36. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 36 Converting Between Scales K = °C + 273.15°C = K – 273.15 °C = (°F – 32)(5/9)°F = °C(9/5) + 32 1.7

37. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 37 Exercise At what temperature does  C =  F?

38. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 38 Density Mass of substance per unit volume of the substance: Density = mass/volume 1.8

39. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 39 Table 1.5 Densities of Various Common Substances* at 20° C

40. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 40 Classification of Matter Matter – anything occupying space and having mass. Matter exists in three states: –Solid –Liquid –Gas 1.9

41. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 41 Classification of Matter Solid – rigid; has fixed volume and shape Liquid – has definite volume but no specific shape; assumes shape of container Gas – has no fixed volume or shape; takes on the shape and volume of its container 1.9

42. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 42 The Three States of Water 1.9

43. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 43 Structure of a Solid 1.9

44. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 44 Structure of a Liquid 1.9

45. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 45 Structure of a Gas 1.9

46. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 46 Mixtures Mixtures have variable composition:  Homogeneous – having visibly indistinguishable parts; solution  Heterogeneous – having visibly distinguishable parts 1.9

47. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 47 Homogeneous Mixtures 1.9

48. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 48 Homogeneous vs. Heterogeneous 1.9

49. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 49 Compound vs. Mixture 1.9

50. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 50 Simple Laboratory Distillation Apparatus 1.9

51. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 51 The Organization of Matter 1.9

52. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 52 The Organization of Matter

53. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 53 The Organization of Matter 1.9

54. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 54 The Organization of Matter 1.9

55. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 55 Concept Check Sketch a magnified view (showing atoms/molecules) of each of the following: –A heterogeneous mixture of two different compounds –A homogeneous mixture of an element and a compound

56. Chapter One: CHEMICAL FOUNDATIONS 案例 / 討論

57. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 57 Figure 1.4 The Fundamental Steps of the Scientific Method

58. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 58 Figure 1.5 The Various Parts of the Scientific Method

59. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 59 Figure 1.6 Measurement of Volume

60. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 60 Figure 1.7 Common Types of Laboratory Equipment Used to Measure Liquid Volume

61. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 61 Figure 1.9 Measurement of Volume Using a Buret

62. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 62 Figure 1.10 The Results of Several Dart Throws Show the Difference Between Precise and Accurate

63. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 63 Figure 1.11 The Three Major Temperature Scales

64. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 64 Figure 1.12 Normal Body Temperature

65. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 65 Figure 1.13 The Three States of Water

66. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 66 Figure 1.16 The Organization of Matter

67. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 67 Figure 1.1a The Surface of a Single Grain of Table Salt

68. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 68 Figure 1.1b An Oxygen Atom on a Gallium Arsenide Surface

69. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 69 Figure 1.1c Scanning Tunneling Microscope Image

70. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 70 Figure 1.2 A Charged Mercury Atom

71. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 71 Figure 1.3a Each Grain of Sand is Composed of Tiny Atoms

72. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 72 Figure 1.3b Beach at Big Sur

73. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 73 Robert Boyle

74. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 74 Soda is Sold in 2-Liter Bottles- an Example of SI Units in Everyday Life

75. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 75 Figure 1.8 An Electronic Analytic Balance

76. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 76 Rounding Numbers

77. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 77 Liquid Nitrogen

78. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 78 Figure 1.14 Simple Laboratory Distillation Apparatus

79. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 79 Figure 1.15a A Line of the Mixture to be Separated is Placed at One End of a Sheet

80. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 80 Figure 1.15b The Paper Acts as a Wick to Draw up the Liquid

81. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 81 Figure 1.15c Component with the Weakest Attraction for the Paper Travels Faster

82. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 82 Mercury and Iodine Combine to Form Mercuric Iodide

83. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 83 Table 1.1 The Fundamental SI Units

84. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 84 Table 1.2 The Prefixes Used in the SI System

85. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 85 Table 1.3 Some Examples of Commonly Used Units

86. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 86 Table 1.4 English-Metric Equivalents

87. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 87 Table 1.5 Densities of Various Common Substances* at 20° C

88. Chapter One Chemical Foundations 問答

89. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 89 Question Which of the following is an example of a quantitative observation? –Solution A is a darker red color than solution B. –The grass is green. –Substance A has a greater mass than substance B. –The temperature of the water is 45°C.

90. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 90 Answer d) The temperature of the water is 45°C. A quantitative observation includes a measurement (numerical) and a unit.

91. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 91 Question The glassware shown below is called a buret. The buret is filled to the zero mark (at the top) with a solution and the solution is transferred to a beaker. What volume of transferred solution should be reported? –20 mL –22 mL –22.0 mL –22.00 mL –25 mL

92. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 92 Answer c) 22.0 mL In a measurement, we always include one uncertain digit. The graduations on this buret are in 1-mL units, so we can estimate the volume to the tenths place.

93. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 93 Question The boiling point of a liquid was measured in the lab, with the following results: TrialBoiling Point 122.0°C ± 0.1 222.1°C ± 0.1 321.9°C ± 0.1 The actual boiling point of the liquid is 28.7°C. The results of the determination of the boiling point are –accurate and precise. –precise but inaccurate. –accurate but imprecise. –inaccurate and imprecise.

94. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 94 Answer b) precise but inaccurate. The measurements are precise because they are all in close agreement with one another. However, they are relatively far from the true value, so they are inaccurate.

95. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 95 Question _______ reflects the reproducibility of a given type of measurement. –Accuracy –Precision –Certainty –Systematic error –Random error

96. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 96 Answer b) Precision Measurements are precise if they are relatively close to one another, regardless of how close they are to the true answer.

97. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 97 Question _______ is the agreement of a particular value with the true value. –Accuracy –Precision –Certainty –Systematic error –Random error

98. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 98 Answer a) Accuracy If a measurement is in close agreement with the true value, it is an accurate measurement.

99. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 99 Question After performing a calculation in the lab, the display on your calculator reads “0.023060070”. If the number in the answer is to have five significant figures, what result should you report? –0.0230 –0.00231 –0.023060 –0.2367 –0.02306

100. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 100 Answer c) 0.023060 The leading zeros are not significant, but the captive zero and the trailing zero are significant.

101. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 101 Question How many significant figures are in the number 0.03040? –1 –2 –3 –4 –5

102. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 102 Answer c) 4 The leading zeros are not significant, but the captive zero and the trailing zero are significant.

103. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 103 Question The beakers below have different precisions. You pour the water from these three beakers into one container. What is the volume in this container reported to the correct number of significant figures? –78.817 mL –78.82 mL –78.8 mL –79 mL

104. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 104 Answer d) 79 mL In a measurement, we always include one uncertain digit. In this case, the first measurement could be 26.4 mL ± 0.1 mL, the second could be 26 mL ± 1 mL, and the third could be 26.42 mL ± 0.01 mL. When adding, the result has the same number of decimal places as the least precise measurement—in this case, to the ones place. So the answer is 26.4 + 26 + 26.42 = 78.82 mL, which must be rounded to 79 mL.

105. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 105 Question Express 3140 in scientific notation. –3.14 × 10 3 –3.14 × 10 -3 –3.140 × 10 3 –3.140 × 10 -3

106. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 106 Answer a) 3.14 × 10 3 10 3 = 1000, and 3.14 × 1000 = 3140. We lose the zero because it is not significant (it is a placeholder). If the zero was significant, we should write the number as “3140.”.

107. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 107 Question A solution is also a –heterogeneous mixture. –homogeneous mixture. –compound. –distilled mixture. –pure mixture.

108. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 108 Answer b) homogeneous mixture. Solutions can be liquids in liquids (such as rubbing alcohol, which consists of isopropanol in water), solids in liquids (such as sugar water), a mixture of gases (such as air), or even a mixture of solids (such as brass, which consists of a mixture of copper and zinc).

109. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 109 Question Which of the following statements is false? –Solutions are always homogeneous mixtures. –Atoms that make up a solid are mostly open space. –Elements can exist as atoms or molecules. –Compounds can exist as elements or molecules.

110. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 110 Answer d) Compounds can exist as atoms or molecules. Elements can be atoms (such as He) or molecules (such as O 2 ), but compounds must exist as molecules.

111. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 111 Richard III of England Richard III (2 October 1452 – 22 August 1485) was King of England from 1483 until his death. He was the last king from the House of York, and his defeat at the Battle of Bosworth marked the culmination of the Wars of the Roses and the end of the Plantagenet dynasty. After the death of his brother King Edward IV, Richard briefly governed as regent for Edward's son King Edward V with the title of Lord Protector, but he placed Edward and his brother Richard in the Tower (see Princes in the Tower) and seized the throne for himself, being crowned on 6 July 1483.2 October145222 August1485KingEnglandHouse of YorkBattle of BosworthWars of the RosesPlantagenet dynastyKing Edward IVregentKing Edward VLord ProtectorEdwardRichardTowerPrinces in the Tower6 July1483 Two large-scale rebellions rose against Richard. The first, in 1483, was led by staunch opponents of Edward IV and, most notably, Richard's own 'kingmaker', Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham. The revolt collapsed and Buckingham was executed at Salisbury, near the Bull's Head Inn. However, in 1485, another rebellion arose against Richard, headed by Henry Tudor, 2nd Earl of Richmond (later King Henry VII) and his uncle Jasper. The rebels landed troops and Richard fell in the Battle of Bosworth Field, then known as Redemore or Dadlington Field, as the last Plantagenet king and the last English king to die in battle.Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of BuckinghamSalisburyHenry Tudor, 2nd Earl of RichmondJasperBattle of Bosworth Field

112. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 112 Raider’s lost ark Gold idol Booby-trapped pedestal A bag of sand

113. Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.Chapter 1 | Slide 113