2. Kepemimpinan dan Manajerial Chapter 1
Mata kuliah : J Kepemimpinan Entrepreneurial Global
Tahun : 2010
Kepemimpinan dan Manajerial Chapter 1

3. Learning Objectives
Understand why leadership has been defined in so many different ways
Understand how leadership will be defined in this book
Understand the controversy about differences between leadership and management
Understand why it is so difficult to assess leadership effectiveness
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4. Learning Objectives (Cont.)
Understand the different indicators used to assess leadership effectiveness
Understand what aspects of leadership have been studied the most during the past 50 years
Understand how leadership can be described as an individual, dyadic, group, or organizational process
Understand the organization of this book
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5. Defining Leadership
“There are almost as many definitions of Leadership as there are persons who have attempted to define the concept.” (Stogdill, 1974)
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6. Definitions of Leadership
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7. Additional Controversy
Specialized role or shared influence process
Type of influence process
Purpose of influence attempts
Influence based on reason or emotions
Direct versus indirect leadership
Leadership versus management
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8. Specialized Role or Shared Influence Process
Specific leadership role – some functions cannot be shared
Leaders and followers
Shared Influence Process
Naturally occurring
Any member can be a leader at any time
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9. Type of Influence Process
Leadership only occurs when influence attempts results in enthusiastic commitment
All types of influence need to be examined – even when forcing or manipulating subordinates
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10. Purpose of Influence Attempts
Leadership occurs only when people are influenced to do what is ethical and consistent with organizational goals
Look at outcome of the influence attempts and not necessarily the leader’s intended purpose
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11. Influence Based on Reason or Emotion
Traditional definitions of leadership emphasize rational, cognitive processes
Recent views of leadership emphasize emotional aspects of influence
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12. Leadership vs. Management
Leaders and managers are completely different and mutually exclusive
Managers are concerned with doing things right (efficiency)
Leaders are concerned with doing the right things (effectiveness)
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13. Leadership vs. Management (Cont.)
Leaders and managers are different roles but don’t have to be different types of people
Mintzberg’s 10 leadership roles
Kotter differentiating between managers and leaders in terms of core processes and intended outcomes
Rost view of management as an authority relationship and leadership as a multidirectional influence relationship
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14. Direct vs. Indirect Leadership
Leader’s direct influence on immediate subordinates
Leader’s direct influence on lower-level employees, peers, bosses, or outsiders
Indirect leadership
Cascading effect of leadership influence
Influence over formal programs, management systems, and structural forms
Influence over organizational culture
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15. A Working Definition of Leadership
“Leadership is the process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be done and how to do it, and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives.”
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16. What Leaders Can Influence
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17. Indicators of Leadership Effectiveness
Performance and growth of leader’s group or organization
Follower attitudes and perceptions of the leader
Leader’s contribution to the quality of group processes
Extent to which a person has a successful career as a leader
Development of a composite measure
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18. Immediate and Delayed Outcomes
Immediate outcomes easy to measure
Willingness to complete a project
Delayed outcomes difficult to assess
Influenced by extraneous events
Leader can effect both immediate and delayed outcomes
May be inconsistent and move in opposite directions
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19. Leadership Causal Chain
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20. Key Variables in Leadership Theories
Characteristics of the Leader
Characteristics of the Follower
Characteristics of the Situation
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21. Characteristics of the Leader
Traits (motives, personality, values)
Confidence and optimism
Skills and expertise
Behavior
Integrity (honesty, behavior consistent with values)
Influence tactics
Attributions about followers
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22. Characteristics of the Follower
Traits (needs, values, self concepts)
Confidence and optimism
Skills and expertise
Attributions about the leader
Trust in the leader
Task commitment and effort
Satisfaction with job and leader
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23. Characteristics of the Situation
Type of organizational unit
Size of unit
Position power and authority of leader
Task structure and complexity
Task interdependence
Environmental uncertainty
External dependencies
National cultural values
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24. Causal Relationship Between Key Variables
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25. Overview of Major Research Approaches
Trait approach
Behavior approach
Power-influence approach
Situational approach
Integrative approach
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26. Level of Conceptualization for Leadership
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27. Research Questions at Different Levels of Conceptualization
Intra-Individual Theories
How leaders manage their time
How leader traits and values influence leadership behavior
How leader skills are related to leader behavior
How leaders make decisions
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28. Research Questions at Different Levels of Conceptualization (Cont.)
Intra-Individual Theories (Cont.)
How leaders are influenced by role expectations and constraints
How leaders react to feedback and learn from experience
How leaders can use self-management techniques
How leaders can use self-development techniques
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29. Research Questions at Different Levels of Conceptualization (Cont.)
Dyadic Theories
How a leader influences subordinate motivation and task commitment
How a leader facilitates the work of a subordinate
How a leader interprets information about a subordinate
How a leader develops a subordinate’s skills and confidence
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30. Research Questions at Different Levels of Conceptualization (Cont.)
Dyadic Theories (Cont.)
How a leader influences subordinate loyalty and trust
How a leader uses influence tactics with a subordinate, peer, or boss
How a leader and a subordinate influence each other
How a leader develops a cooperative exchange relationship with a subordinate
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31. Research Questions at Different Levels of Conceptualization (Cont.)
Group-Level Theories
How different leader-member relations affect each other and team performance
How leadership is shared in the group or team
How leaders organize and coordinate the activities of team members
How leaders influence cooperation and resolve disagreements in the team or unit
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32. Research Questions at Different Levels of Conceptualization (Cont.)
Group-Level Theories (Cont.)
How leaders influence collective efficacy and optimism for the team or unit
How leaders influence collective learning and innovation in the team or unit
How leaders influence collective identification of members with the team or unit
How unit leaders obtain resources and support from the organization and other units
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33. Research Questions at Different Levels of Conceptualization (Cont.)
Organization-Level Theories
How top executives influence lower-level members
How leaders are selected at each level (and implications of process for the firm)
How leaders influence organizational culture
How leaders influence the efficiency and the cost of internal operations
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34. Research Questions at Different Levels of Conceptualization (Cont.)
Organization-Level Theories (Cont.)
How leaders influence human relations and human capital in the organization
How leaders make decisions about competitive strategy and external initiatives
How conflicts among leaders are resolved in an organization
How leaders influence innovation and major change in an organization
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35. Level of Conceptualization for Leadership
Intra-individual process – focuses on processes within a single individual
Dyadic process – focuses on the relationship between a leader and another individual
Group process – focuses on the leadership role in a task group and how a leader contributes to group effectiveness
Organizational process – focuses on leadership as a process that occurs in a larger open system in which groups are a subsystem
Multi-level theories – include constructs from more than one level of explanation
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36. Other Bases for Comparing Leadership Theories
Leader vs. Follower-Centered Theory
Descriptive vs. Prescriptive Theory
Universal vs. Contingency Theory
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37. Perspectives on Effective Leadership Behavior

38. Learning Objectives
Understand what research methods have been used to study leadership behavior
Understand the findings in the early research on leadership behavior
Understand how leadership behavior can be described with either broad or specific categories
Understand the different methods for developing taxonomies of leadership behavior

39. Learning Objectives (Cont.)
Understand why task and relations behaviors are important for leadership effectiveness
Understand how specific types of task and relations behaviors can be used effectively
Understand why it is useful to classify leadership behavior in terms of a three-dimensional model
Understand the contributions and limitations of the behavior approach

40. Ohio State Leadership Studies
Leadership Behaviors
Consideration – leader’s concern for people and interpersonal relationships
Initiating structure – leader’s concern for accomplishing the task

41. Ohio State Leadership Studies
Research Results
Relation between consideration and turnover rate

42. Ohio State Leadership Studies
Research Results (Cont.)
Relation between initiating structure and turnover rate

43. Michigan Leadership Studies
Leadership Behaviors
Task-oriented behaviors
Relations-oriented behaviors
Participative leadership
Peer Leadership

44. Limitations of Survey Research
Bias in Behavior Description Questionnaires
Ambiguous items
Response bias
Aggregation of items

45. Problems Interpreting Causality in Survey Studies

46. Experiments Laboratory Experiments Field Experiments
Low external validity (generalizability)
High internal validity
Inconsistent findings
Field Experiments
Difficult to conduct
High external validity
Low internal validity
Positive results for relations-oriented behaviors; mixed and inconsistent results for task-oriented behaviors

47. Critical Incident Research
Types of Leader Behaviors
Planning, coordinating, and organizing operations
Supervising subordinates
Establishing and maintaining good relations with subordinates
Establishing and maintaining good relations with superiors, peers, and outsiders
Assuming responsibility for observing organizational policies, carrying out required duties, and making necessary decisions
Limitations of Critical Incident Research

48. The “High-High” Leader
The Managerial Grid & PM Leadership Theory
Additive versus Multiplicative Model
Limited Support for a Universal Model
Need to incorporate situational variables

49. Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid
Concern for Production
Concern for People
(1,1)
Impoverished
Middle-of-the-Road
(5,5)
Authority-Compliance
(9,1)
Team Management
(9,9)
(1,9)
Country Club 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

50. Leadership Behavior Taxonomies

51. Leadership Behavior Taxonomies (Cont.)
Sources of Diversity Among Taxonomies
No absolute set of correct behaviors
Levels of abstraction
Various methods used to develop taxonomies
Limitations of Factor-Based Taxonomies

52. Behaviors at Different Levels of Abstraction

53. Leadership Behavior Taxonomies
Three-Dimensional Taxonomy
Task-Oriented Behaviors
Relations-Oriented Behaviors
Change-Oriented Behaviors

54. Task-Oriented Behaviors
Organize work activities to improve efficiency
Plan short-term operation
Assign work to groups or individuals
Clarify what results are expected for a task
Set specific goals and standards for task performance

55. Task-Oriented Behaviors (Cont.)
Explain rules, policies, and standard operating procedures
Direct and coordinate work activities
Monitor operations and performance
Resolve immediate problems that would disrupt the work

56. Relations-Oriented Behaviors
Provide support and encouragement to someone with a difficult task
Express confidence that a person or group can perform a difficult task
Socialize with people to build relationships
Recognize contributions and accomplishments
Provide coaching and mentoring when appropriate

57. Relations-Oriented Behaviors (Cont.)
Consult with people on decisions affecting them
Allow people to determine the best way to do a task
Keep people informed about actions affecting them
Help resolve conflicts in a constructive way
Use symbols, ceremonies, rituals, and stories to build team identity
Recruit competent new members for the team or organization

58. Change-Oriented Behaviors
Monitor the external environment to detect threats and opportunities
Interpret events to explain the urgent need for change
Study competitors and outsiders to get ideas for improvements
Envision exciting new possibilities for the organization
Encourage people to view problems or opportunities in a different way
Develop innovative new strategies linked to core competencies

59. Change-Oriented Behaviors (Cont.)
Encourage and facilitate innovation and entrepreneurship in the organization
Encourage and facilitate collective learning in the team or organization
Experiment with new approaches for achieving objectives
Make symbolic changes that are consistent with a new vision or strategy
Encourage and facilitate efforts to implement major change
Announce and celebrate progress in implementing change
Influence outsiders to support change and negotiate agreements with them

60. Comparison of Recent Taxonomies

61. Specific Task Behaviors
Action Planning
Identify necessary action steps
Identify the optimal sequence of action steps
Estimate the time needed to carry out each action step
Determine starting times and deadlines for each action step
Estimate the cost of each action step
Determine who will be accountable for each action step
Develop procedures for monitoring progress

62. Specific Task Behaviors (cont.) Clarifying Roles and Objectives
Defining Job Responsibilities
Explain the important job responsibilities
Clarify the person’s scope of authority
Explain how the job relates to the mission of the unit
Explain important policies, rules, and requirements
Assigning Work
Clearly explain the assignment
Explain the reasons for an assignment
Clarify priorities and deadlines
Check for comprehension
Setting Performance Goals
Set goals for relevant aspects of performance
Set goals that are clear and specific
Set goals that are challenging but realistic
Set a target date for attainment of each goal

63. Specific Relations Behaviors Guidelines for Supporting

64. Specific Relations Behaviors Guidelines for Coaching

65. Specific Relations Behaviors Guidelines for Mentoring

66. Specific Relations Behaviors Guidelines for Recognizing

67. The Nature of Managerial Work

68. Learning Objectives
Understand what methods have been used to study managerial work
Understand the typical activity patterns for people in managerial positions
Understand the different roles required for managers and how they are changing

69. Learning Objectives (Cont.)
Understand how managerial roles and activities are affected by aspects of the situation
Understand how managers cope with the demands, constraints, and choices confronting them
Understand the limitations of descriptive research on managerial activities
Understand how managers can make effective use of their time

70. Typical Activity Patterns in Managerial Work
Pace of work is hectic and unrelenting
Content of work is varied and fragmented
Many activities are reactive
Interactions often involve peers and outsiders

71. Typical Activity Patterns in Managerial Work (Cont.)
Many interactions involve oral communication
Decision processes are disorderly and political
Most planning is informal and adaptive

72. The Content of Managerial Work
Job description research
Supervising
Planning and organizing
Decision making
Monitoring indicators
Controlling
Representing
Coordinating
Consulting
Administering

73. Mintzberg’s Managerial Roles

74. Role Conflicts Role senders Role expectations Conflicting demands
Perceptions of role requirements

75. Unique Role Requirements Stewart (1967, 1976, 1982)
Demands – required duties, activities, and responsibilities
Constraints – limiting characteristics of the organization and external environment
Choices – activities that a manager may do but is not required to do

76. Unique Role Requirements Situational Determinants
Pattern of relationships
Work patterns
Exposure

77. Research on Situational Determinants
Level of management
Size of organizational unit
Lateral interdependence
Crisis situation
Stage in the organizational life cycle

78. Changes in the Nature of Managerial Work
Economics, politics, and society
Globalization
New computer and telecommunications technology
Structure of organizations
Outsourcing and just-in-time inventories

79. Managerial Activities

80. Applications for Managers Guidelines for Managing Time
Understand the reasons for demands and constraints
Expand the range of choices
Determine what you want to accomplish
Analyze how to use your time
Plan daily and weekly activities

81. Applications for Managers Guidelines for Managing Time (Cont.)
Avoid unnecessary activities
Conquer procrastination
Take advantage of reactive activities
Make time for reflective planning

82. Applications for Managers Guidelines for Problem Solving
Identify important problems that can be solved
Look for connections among problems
Experiment with innovative solutions
Take decisive action to deal with crises