1. Soils
Pedology… the scientific study of soils. The surface layer of loose material that covers the earth’s surface containing organic & inorganic matter.
Soil Composition:
Made up of mineral matter, organic matter, air & water.
Mineral Matter:
Got from parent material such as bedrock (limestone sandstone) which is broken down by physical & chemical actions. Also got from glacial, river & wind blown deposits.
Mineral content refers to calcium, potassium, phosphorus & other such compounds. These are food for plants.
Parent material determines the colour, texture, depth and pH value of soil.

2. 7.1 SOILS: Composition

3. Organic Matter
Also know as humus. Formed by decaying plants, animal life & through actions of bacteria & micro-organisms. Burrowing animals & worms aerate the soil & mix soil layers.
Humus improves soil texture & binds soil particles together.
Plant roots also bind soil, take up nutrients & return them when they die.
Climate
Distribution of soils coincide with distribution of climates.
Climate, mainly temp & precipitation, influences the type of veg growth
Chemical weathering in hot climates creates great depth of soils.
Large the vegetation the greater the amount of humus.
Climate influences rate of weathering of soil & decay of plant matter.
Heavy rainfall causes leaching. Weathering is the first stage of soil formation .

4. Slope (topography) & water
Steep slopes result in removal of fine particles by rainwater but better drained.
Flat slope encourage accumulation of fine particles.
Aspect (way it faces) creates different soils on north & south slopes.
Water moves through the layers & carries nutrients with it…leaching. This can create a hard pan & impedes drainage.
Air
Vital for oxidation… converts organic matter into oxygen.
Vital for presence of bacteria which require oxygen.

5. 7.1 SOILS – Development - Profiles
General
O Organic Layer consists of plant
litter and humus
Not present in cultivated fields
A Topsoil consists of humus and minerals
The ploughed layer
B Subsoil low in organic material
C Transition Area between soil and parent material consists of partially disintegrated bedrock
R Bedrock

6. 7.1 SOILS – Development - Profiles
Brown Earth
Source ENCARTA
Tropical Red Soil

7. Soil Characteristics
Texture, structure, colour, moisture, humus, air, pH
Texture
Refers to proportion of sand silt & clay. Texture determined by mixing water & soil in a jar
Texture influences soils ability *to retain & transmit moisture
*retain nutrients *allow roots to penetrate
Sandy soils…. 70% or more sand & have few nutrients…feel gritty
Clay soils… 50% or more clay & rich in nutrients …easily waterlogged…feel sticky
Silty soils intermediate btw sandy & clay… feel smooth
Loam soils fertile… mixture of various particle sizes…. well aerated with some moisture & plant food.

8. 7.1 SOILS: Characteristics – Determining Soil Texture
Fill a screw topped clear glass jar two thirds full with soil
Add water until jar is almost full
Shake the jar for 1 minute approx.
Leave the jar to settle for 24 hours
100
Clay 90 80
Silt 70
Fine Sand 60 50 40
70% sand, 10% silt 20% clay = Sandy Loam/ Sandy Clay Loam soil 30
Coarse Sand 20 10

9. Colour
Humus soils are dark brown or black.
Brown soils get colour from decayed leaves & plants.
Dark soils absorb more sunlight & so are warmer than light soils… helps seed germination & longer growing season.
Structure
Refers to shape of soil particles.
Clusters of particles form in undisturbed soil called peds.
Shape & size of peds determine the pore spaces for air & water & organisms to pass through.
Crumb structure soils give highest agric. yield as it provides a balance btw air, water & nutrients.

10. 7.1 SOILS: Characteristics – Structure
Single Grained Structure
Associated with sandy soils
Water, air and organisms can pass through it easily
Roots can spread out into the soil easily
Water retention is poor - Nutrient retention is poor
Prone to leaching
Vulnerable to drought
Single grained

11. 7.1 SOILS: Characteristics – Structure
Crumby Structure
Associated with good agricultural land – loam soils
Water, air and organisms can pass through crumby soils easily
Roots can spread out into the soil easily
Water retention is good as it is soaked up by the crumbs of soil – Nutrient retention good
Crumb : 1 - 5mm

12. 7.1 SOILS: Characteristics – Structure
Massive Structure
Usually associated with clay type soils
Water, air and organisms can not pass through this type of soil easily
Roots have difficulty penetrating the large lumps of clay
Soils are often waterlogged after periods of rain
Soil dries into hard clumps after a dry period
Massive

13. Moisture Content
Water moves down by percolation & up by capillary attraction.
Carries many mineral compounds…. creates process of solution.
Water content varies from nil (arid) to very high (waterlogged).
Persistent percolation causes leaching (minerals drawn downwards).
Leaching creates podzol soils.
Organic Content
Formed from decaying plants & animals.
Humus gives soil a dark colour…. falling leaves, decaying grass & roots (organic matter) main input for humus… create black earth soils.
Bacteria & fungi break down organic matter.
Soil organisms will mix plant litter into the A horizon where it will decompose into humus.

14. pH value
pH a measure of its acidity or alkalinity.
Low pH is acidic soil… happens where minerals like calcium & potassium are leached. Neutralised by adding limestone.
Very low acidic soil slows decomposition & creates peat.
High pH means alkaline soil… indicate high lime (calcium) & potassium content.
Neutral soil most suitable to farming.

15. 7.1 SOILS: Characteristics – pH value
pH = potential Hydrogen ions
pH value of 7 = neutral

16. 7.1 SOILS: Characteristics - Texture
Particle Size
Clay:
Less than 0.002mm
Silt:
0.002 – 0.02mm
Sand:
0.02 – 2.0mm

17. 7.1 SOILS: Characteristics - Texture
Sample
Sand 70%
Clay 20%
Silt 10%

18. 7.2 SOILS – Influences Affected by: Immediate Environment
Processes Including Human Interference

19. Soil formation occurs more rapidly if its composed of boulder clay
Factors that affect soil formation:
Parent Material
Soil formation occurs more rapidly if its composed of boulder clay
deposits rather than bedrock.
Soils inherit characteristics of parent material.
Soils from limestone will have calcium & become alkaline.
Soils from sandstone will be sandy, easily drained & heat quickly.
Climate
Temp & precipitation effects include:
* Heat & moisture encourages growth.
* Hot wet regions have lots of veg. covers… more humus

20. * Decomposition occurs quickly
* Heavy rainfall causes leaching
* Spells of drought increases minerals like calcium due to evaporation.
Topography
Level surfaces.. deeper soils Steep slopes… thin soils, erosion but well drained. South facing slopes warmer… encourage growth.
Living Organisms
Roots bind soil & absorb moisture & nutrients.
Insects break down & aerate soil.
Time
Soils develop over thousands of years..speed depends on parent material.
Can be washed away in floods or eroded quickly like Dust Bowl In North America.

21. Precipitation
Water essential for growth….absence leads plants to die or adapt (desert)
Water retention determined by soil structure & texture.
Clays hold more water than sandy soils.

22. 7.2 SOILS – Global Climate Types

23. 7.2 SOILS – Global Patterns

24. 7.2 SOILS – European Patterns

25. Factors influencing Soil Characteristics
Processes
Weathering
Physical weathering breaks down the parent rock… soil retains these characteristics.
Chemical weathering breaks down soil by carbonation, hydration, hydrolysis & oxidation. Weathering release nutrients into soil.
Humification
Breakdown of plant matter into humus. Faster in hot, humid regions.
Leaching
Heavy rainfall carries minerals to lower horizons. Upper soil becomes acidic & mineral deficient.

26. 7.2 SOILS – Influences Processes - Weathering

27. Podzolisation
Rainwater becomes acidic in coniferous or acid bog soils & removes minerals & soil becomes acidic. A horizon becomes greyish … drained of all colouring materials & B horizon reddish….has many of the dissolved minerals. Hard pan develops causing waterlogging. Infertile podzol soil.
Laterisation
Intense rainfall & rapid decay means little acid in soil.
Leaching removes minerals except iron & aluminium…..due to large concentration of these minerals. These build up close to surface creating bauxite (alum) & red laterite (iron) soils. Occurs in tropics where rainfall & temp are high.
Salinisation
Ground water rising to surface by capillary action carries salt deposits… create a hard toxic crust. Occurs where rainfall is low & evaporation high

28. 7.2 SOILS – Influences Processes - Erosion

29. Calcification
Calcium remains close to surface in low rainfall areas due to evaporation & capillary action. Very little leaching due to low rainfall.
Gleying
Waterlogged & poorly aerated soils where lack of oxygen retards decomposition…. Drumlin belt.

30. 7.2 SOILS – Influences Human Interference
Over-cropping
Over-grazing
Desertification
Conservation

31. 7.2 SOILS – Human Interference
Clearing Bush-land in Australia

32. 7.2 SOILS – Human Interference
Erosion caused by raindrops on bare land

33. 7.2 SOILS – Human Interference
Erosion caused by tilling dry land

34. 7.2 SOILS – Human Interference
Erosion caused by wind
Source: Seafriends.org.nz

35. 7.2 SOILS – Human Interference
Livestock Damage
Source: Seafriends.org.nz

36. 7.2 SOILS – Human Interference
Soil Protection
Source: Seafriends.org.nz

37. 7.2 SOILS – Human Interference
Erosion caused by tilling hill slopes
Source: Seafriends.org.nz

38. 7.2 SOILS – Human Interference
Contour ploughing
Strip cropping
Source: Seafriends.org.nz
Terracing
Paddy (Padi) fields

39. 7.2 SOILS – Human Interference
Soil Protection
Source: Seafriends.org.nz

40. 7.2 SOILS – Human Interference

41. 7.2 SOILS – Human Interference
Desertification – Europe

42. Classification of Soils
Three basic groups: Zonal, Intrazonal, Azonal.
Zonal Soils
Classified according to climate zones in which they occur.
They are mature soils with distinctive profiles & mature horizons.
Tundra:
Climatic Zone Tundra Vegetation zone Tundra.
Artic regions of Canada, Russia & Scandanavia.
Vegetation…. Lichens, shrubs & mosses.
Shallow, brown to dark grey A Horizon…. permafrost.

43. Latosols:
Climatic zone Tropical Vegetation zone Tropical rainforest
Found in tropics & rainforests like Indonesia & Brazil.
High rainfall has leached out most of the minerals except iron & aluminium…. very little acid left in soil.
Iron oxide builds up in a layer due to leaching… called lateralisation.
Chemical weathering is dominant & decay is rapid.
Iron oxide tints the soil a red colour (as it is exposed to oxygen) forming laterite while the aluminium tends to form bauxite.

44. Intrazonal soils
Individual soils that develop within zonal soil regions due to local factors such as parent material or drainage having more influence than climate.
Terra Rossa
Climatic zone warm temperate maritime Vegetation zone Mediterranean.
Mature limestone based soil.
Iron minerals are oxidised by chemical weathering creating a red soil.
Found in Mezzogiorno, Italy & coffee-growing regions of Brazil.

45. Azonal Soils
Soils with an immature profile not yet fully developed.
Parent material is weathered rock or glacial deposition.
Location not confined to any one climatic zone.
Regosols:
Derived from volcanic, sand or alluvial deposits.
A Horizon is light in colour and B horizon does not exist.
C horizon a mixture of sand & silt.
Form alluvial deposits on floodplains like the Tigris-Euphrates rivers in Iraq & the Indus in India.

46. Profile of an Irish soil
Brown earth: Most common Irish type.
Well drained, medium textured with a uniform dark brown profile.
pH within 5 to 7 range & a crumb structure.
Parent material is boulder clay from ice age.
Highly productive, though quality varies, & easily adapted to pasture & tillage.
Develop in cool temperate climates covered with deciduous forests.
Heavy leaf fall & rapid decay resulted in thick layers of dark humus….
gives it the brown colour & makes it crumbly.
Tree roots absorb large amounts of nutrients but return them to the soil when leaves fall off.

47. Temp suitable for earthworms & organisms & these with burrowing animals mix up soil…. less distinct boundary between A & B Horizons. Well drained soil.
3 main types of Brown earth soils found in Ireland.
1. Podzol… Rainwater becomes acidic & removes minerals… on lowland limestone areas of central & eastern Ireland. Slightly leached.
2. Acid brown earth… dev. from parent material poor in lime like granite & sandstone….. acidic soils… found in South East.
3. Shallow brown earth… fertile but shallow & stony with parent rock too near the surface for cultivation…. Burren & east Galway.

48. 7.3 BIOMES – World Regions Deciduous Forest Desert Taiga Tropical
Rain Forest
Grassland
Tundra

49. Human Interference with soil characteristics… Desertification
Desertification: The reduction in veg. cover thus exposing the soil to erosion, making a region unable to provide for its natural wildlife or human pop.
Desertification does not just refer to moving forward of deserts but to formation of degraded patches of soil & veg cover.
Two main factors Climatic Change Human Interference.
E.g. Sahel…. narrow band of Africa that lies between the Sahara to the north & savannah (grass & open forest) & equatorial forest to the south. Area receives rain during a short active wet season (late June to Sept.)
It supports a nomadic, pastoral based society. Sahara desert advancing southwards into Sahel by between 5 & 10km per year.

50. Causes of Desertification: Climatic Change
Decrease in rainfall… fell by 30% in last ten years. Rain arrives late & wet season shorter… effects wildlife & veg.
Increased drought… below average rainfall & periods of total drought &
Global warming… higher world temp.-- increased evaporation & reduced condensation.
Factors resulted in : Less rainfall
wells, rivers & water holes drying up
Water table fell.
Overall result:

51. Causes of desertification… a) Human interference
Increased animal numbers…cattle ownership = wealth & status - led to increased herd numbers. …. overgrazing.
Increased number of boreholes dug---- nomads stayed longer - pressure on grasslands. Boreholes drained water table & promoted soil salinisation.
Intensive land use led to overcropping & overgrazing….increased tillage for cash crops like groundnuts so no more fallow year. Reduced yields led to increased tillage area on marginal lands.
Trees & bushes cut down for firewood….led to increases wind effect & soil erosion.
Result: Veg. lost by grazing & trampling.
Soil depleted of nutrients.
Moisture evaporated from soil…. erosion & desertification.

52. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Intensive Agricultural Practices
Bolivia Source: UNEP

53. Causes of desertification b) Population Growth:
Higher birth rates… meant more cash crops & higher demand for food so more overcropping leading to reduced yields & infertile soil…. move to new lands & cleared it of its existing veg.
Wood cut for heating & cooking (90% is wood) & buildings in urban areas…. deforestation as tress, shrubs & small bushes cut down.
Result: Less humus, infertile soil & lack of wind block by veg.
Soil erosion & desertification.
Soil conservation:
Stone lines…. placing small stones on slopes to reduce run-off…. aligned with the contours so they trap water & give it time to infiltrate into the soil.
Benefit: replenish water table; reduce soil erosion; traps soil & seed so plants begin to grow. Method takes up 2% of land but can increase yields by up to 50%.

54. Improved farming methods:
2. Contour ploughing: Soil is ploughed across the slope. Furrows act like dams holding water. Traps water & reduces soil erosion by 50%.
On steeper slopes terracing… slope cut into a series of steps & front of each terrace is edged with stones or mud to trap water.
Crop rotation used to replace nutrients into the soil e.g. alfalfa grasses replace nitrogen.
Improved farming methods:
Strip farming… planting crops in widely spaced rows, filling the space with a different type & height crop, that mature at different times…. Allows water to soak into ground, different nutrients required so soil not exhausted & soil not exposed to wind as a crops protect it.
Shelter belts: trees & shrubs planted to reduce wind erosion & bind soil.
Some are fruit producing trees which provides food.
New animal breeds: smaller better quality cattle that fattened quickly or produced more milk.

55. 7.4 BIOMES – Human Activities Industrial Development – Acid Rain
Effects of Acid Rain
Source: angelfire.com

56. New animal breeds: smaller herds, better quality cattle that fattened quickly or produced more milk…. reduced grazing needs & increased milk & meat production.
Sheep & goats introduced to areas of poor quality scrub.