1. The Nature of Motivation
The psychological forces acting on an individual that determine:
Direction—possible behaviors the individual could engage in
Effort—how hard the individual will work
Persistence—whether the individual will keep trying or give up
This is one of the factors that explains why people behave the way they do in organizations.
What are some other factors?
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2. The Nature of Motivation (cont’d)
Extrinsic Motivation
Behavior that is performed to acquire material or social rewards or to avoid punishment.
Examples?
What motivate you?
What motivates others you know?
Intrinsic Motivation
Behavior that is performed for its own sake.
What motivates you?
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3. Theories in Motivation (Expectancy Theory)
Motivation will be highest when:
Effort  Performance  Desired Outcomes
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4. Expectancy Theory, cont’d
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Source:
Figure 12.3

5. Theories in Motivation (Needs Theories)
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Five basic needs
Lowest level of unmet need is the primary motivator
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6. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self-
actualization
Realize one’s
full potential
Use abilities
to the fullest
Esteem
Feel good
about oneself
Promotions
and recognition
Belongingness
Social
interaction, love
Interpersonal
relations, parties
Safety
Security, stability
Job security,
health insurance
Physiological
Food, water,
shelter
Basic pay level
to buy items
Needs
Description
Examples
Lower-level needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs are addressed.
Highest-level needs
Lowest-level needs
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Table 12.1

7. Theories in Motivation (Needs Theories, cont’d)
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Three needs categories
Needs at more than one level can be the motivator at any time
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8. Adequate pay for necessities
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
After lower level needs satisfied, person seeks higher needs. When
unable to satisfy higher needs, lower needs motivation is raised.
Growth
Self-development,
creative work
Continually
improve skills
Relatedness
Interpersonal
relations, feelings
Good relations,
accurate feedback
Existence
Food, water,
clothing, and shelter
Adequate pay for necessities
Needs
Description
Examples
Highest-level needs
Lowest-level needs
Source:
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Table 12.2

9. Theories in Motivation (Needs Theories)
Let’s stop for a minute …
Why should a manager care about
all these “needs theories”?
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10. Theories in Motivation (Needs Theories, cont’d)
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Motivator needs relate to the nature of the work itself—autonomy, responsibility, interesting work.
Hygiene needs are related to the physical and psychological context of the work—comfortable work environment, pay, job security.
Unsatisfied hygiene needs create dissatisfaction; satisfaction of hygiene needs does not lead to motivation or job satisfaction.
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11. Theories in Motivation (Needs Theories, cont’d)
McClelland’s Needs for Achievement, Affiliation, and Power
Need for Achievement
A strong need to perform challenging tasks well and meet personal standards for excellence
Need for Affiliation
A concern for good interpersonal relations, being liked, and getting along
Need for Power
A desire to control or influence others
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12. Theories in Motivation (Adam’s Equity Theory)
Focuses on people’s perceptions of the fairness (or lack of fairness) of their work outcomes in proportion to their work inputs.
Equity: input/output ratios are equal
How would you “restore” equity in …
… underpayment
… overpayment
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13. Theories in Motivation (Goal Setting Theory)
Focuses on identifying the types of goals that are effective in producing high levels of motivation and explaining why goals have these effects.
Goals must be:
Specific
Difficult
Include feedback
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14. Theories in Motivation (Learning Theories)
Theories that focus on increasing motivation and performance by linking outcomes to performance and the attainment of goals.
Learning
A relatively permanent change in person’s knowledge or behavior that results from practice or experience.
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15. Theories in Motivation (Learning Theories: Operant Conditioning Theory)
People learn to perform behaviors that lead to desired consequences and learn not to perform behaviors that lead to undesired consequences.
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Extinction
Punishment
OB MOD
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16. Steps in Organizational Behavior Modification
Figure 12.4
Source: Adapted from Organizational Behavior Modification and Beyond by F. Luthans and R. Kreitner (Scott, Foresman, 1985). With permission of the authors.
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17. Theories in Motivation (Learning Theories: Social Learning Theory)
A theory that takes into account how learning and motivation are influenced by people’s thoughts and beliefs and their observations of other people’s behavior.
Vicarious Learning (Observational Learning)
Learning that occurs when a learner is motivated to perform a behavior by watching another person perform and be rewarded.
People are motivated to imitate models who are highly competent, expert, receive attractive reinforcers, and are friendly or approachable.
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18. Theories in Motivation (Where does pay fit in?)
Pay as a Motivator????
Expectancy: pay is an instrumentality (and outcome), must be high for motivation to be high.
Need Theory: pay is used to satisfy many needs.
Equity Theory: pay is given in relation to inputs.
Goal Setting Theory: pay is linked to attainment of goals.
Learning Theory: outcomes (pay), is distributed upon performance of functional behaviors.
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