1. 13-1 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. Motivation across Cultures Chapter 12

2. 13-2 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. The Nature of Motivation  Motivation  Psychological process through which unsatisfied wants or needs lead to drives that are aimed at goals or incentives  Universalist Assumption  All people are motivated to pursue goals they value  Specific content of the goals that are pursued will be influenced by culture  Movement toward market economies may make motivation more similar in different countries

3. 13-3 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. Figure 12-1 The Basic Motivation Process Unsatisfied need Drive toward goal to satisfy need Attainment of goal (need satisfaction)

4. 13-4 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. The Nature of Motivation (cont.)  Content theories  Explain work motivation in terms of what arouses, energizes, or initiates employee behavior  Process theories  Explain work motivation by how employee behavior is initiated, redirected, and halted

5. 13-5 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. Figure 12-2 Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Self- actualization Esteem Social SafetyPhysiological

6. 13-6 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. Hierarchy-of-Needs Theory  Abraham Maslow - Every person has five basic needs  Physiological needs - food, clothing, shelter, and other basic physical needs  Safety needs - desire for security, stability, and the absence of pain  Social needs - need to interact and affiliate with others and the need to feel wanted by others  Esteem needs - needs for power and status  Self-actualization needs - desire to reach one’s full potential by becoming everything one is capable of becoming

7. 13-7 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. Hierarchy-of-Needs Theory (2)  Lower level needs must be satisfied before higher level needs become motivators  Once satisfied, a need is no longer a motivator

8. 13-8 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. Maslow's Theory & International Managers  Each country or geographic region appears to have its own need-satisfaction profile  Managers in U.S., U.K., Nordic Europe and Latin America report that autonomy and self- actualization are the most important and least satisfied needs.  Some East Asian managers report even more difficulty in satisfying these needs  Study was conducted by Haire and others.

9. 13-9 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. Adapting Maslow's Theory to Asia  Nevis suggested that the hierarchy of needs is western-oriented and focuses on the individual.  Asian societies focus on group concerns.  Nevis suggested changing hierarchy for China:  Belonging (social)  Physiological  Safety  Self-actualization (in the service of society)  There is no esteem need in Nevis' hierarchy.

10. 13-10 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. Maslow's Theory and Job Categories  Hofstede noted that the Haire study was limited to managers  Every culture has different sub-cultures  Looked at job categories as sub-cultures  Analyzed motivation by job categories  Divided Maslow's hierarchy into 3 categories  Low: physiological and safety needs  Middle: social needs  High: esteem and actualization needs

11. 13-11 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. Highest-ranked Needs by Job Category  Unskilled workers: low-level needs  Technicians: mix of needs from different categories – at least one high-order need and one low-level need  Clerical workers: middle (social) needs  Managers: high and mid-level needs  Professionals: high-order needs

12. 13-12 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. Two-Factor Theory of Motivation  Theory that holds there are two sets of factors that influence job satisfaction  Motivators (correspond to Maslow's high-level needs)  Job content factors which include achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, and the work itself  Produce satisfaction but not dissatisfaction  Hygiene factors (correspond to Maslow's low level and middle level needs)  Job context variables that include salary, interpersonal relations, technical supervision, working conditions, and company policies and administration  Produce dissatisfaction but not satisfaction

13. 13-13 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. Figure 12-3 Views of Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction Absent Present (no satisfaction) (satisfaction) (motivators) Absent Present (dissatisfaction) (no dissatisfaction) (hygiene factors) Two-Factor Theory Satisfaction Dissatisfaction Traditional View

14. 13-14 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. Two-Factor Theory of Motivation (2)  Cross-Cultural Job-Satisfaction Studies  Results indicate that Herzberg-type motivators tend to be more important sources of job satisfaction than are hygiene factors  Job content factors are more important than job context factors in motivating all levels of employees

15. 13-15 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. Achievement Motivation Theory  Theory holds that individuals can have a need to get ahead, to attain success and to reach objectives  People who have strong a achievement need:  Want personal responsibility for solving problems  Tend to be moderate risk takers  Want concrete feedback about their performance  Often do not get along well with other people

16. 13-16 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. Achievement Motivation Theory (2)  Achievement motivation is learned and, therefore, can be developed through training  Theory has shortcomings  Measurement issues  Does not explain need for achievement in cultures where individual accomplishment is not valued

17. 13-17 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. How to Encourage Achievement Motivation  Train people to  Obtain feedback on performance  Use the feedback to make efforts in areas where they are likely to succeed  Emulate people who have been successful achievers  Develop an internal desire for success and challenges  Daydream in positive terms by picturing themselves as being successful in the pursuit of important objectives

18. 13-18 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. Achievement Motivation Theory (3)  Because the achievement need is learned, it is largely determined by the prevailing culture  Achievement need is not universal and may change over time.  Achievement motivation training programs have been successful in underdeveloped countries  Cultures of Anglo countries and those that reward entrepreneurial effort support achievement motivation.  Countries have high masculinity and low uncertainty avoidance support achievement motivation.  In countries with low masculinity, managers should focus on quality of life as a motivator.

19. 13-19 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. Process Theories – Equity Theory  Focuses on how motivation is affected by people’s perception of how fairly they are being treated  When people believe that they are being treated equitably, it will have a positive effect on their job satisfaction  If they believe they are not being treated fairly (especially in relation to others)  They will be dissatisfied, which will have a negative effect on their job performance.  They will strive to restore equity.

20. 13-20 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. Process Theories – Equity Theory (2)  Focuses on how motivation is affected by people’s perception of how fairly they are being treated  Research in western work groups supports the theory  Limitations of the theory  Perceptions of equity are not the same everywhere.  In collectivist cultures, people may accept unequal treatment to preserve group harmony.  Examples: Most countries in the Middle East & Asia  In some cultures, women may accept unequal treatment (example: lower wages than men)

21. 13-21 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. Process Theories – Goal-Setting Theory  People perform best when they have challenging goals and have a role in setting those goals (participative goal setting).  In the United States and in Israel, participative goal setting with individuals increases both motivation and performance  International research on goal setting theories  Employees in Norway and the United Kingdom prefer to have management work with union officials in setting work goals  Participative goal setting with individuals may not work well in collectivist cultures

22. 13-22 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. Setting Goals  Goals should be  Challenging but attainable  Important  Specific: The employee should know what is expected  Measurable: The employee and the manager should agree on how the goal will be measured  The employee should receive timely and frequent feedback on progress toward the goal

23. 13-23 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. Process Theories - Expectancy Theory  Motivation is influenced by a person’s belief that effort will lead to performance, performance will lead to specific outcomes, and that these outcomes are valued by the individual  Theory is likely to work best in cultures where employees believe that they have control over what happens to them  Expectancy theory has been used successfully in Japan.

24. 13-24 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. Motivation Applied - Overview  Job design  Quality of work life  Sociotechnical job design  Job satisfaction  Work centrality  Value of work (reasons for working)  Factors that lead to job satisfaction  Rewards  Incentives

25. 13-25 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. Quality of Work Life  Hofstede's cultural dimensions can be used to explain differences in work life.  Example: Japan  Strong uncertainty avoidance  work is highly structured and risk taking is discouraged  High masculinity  people are willing to work hard for success and money is a powerful motivator.  High collectivism  emphasis on group harmony and use of quality circles (with limited power)  Moderately high power distance  top management makes most decisions

26. 13-26 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. Sociotechnical Job Design  The objective of these designs is to integrate new technology into the workplace so that workers accept and use it to increase overall productivity  New technology often requires people learn new methods and in some cases work faster  Employee resistance is common  Effective sociotechnical design can overcome these problems

27. 13-27 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. Sociotechnical Job Design (2)  Principles of sociotechnical job design  Task variety  Skill variety  Autonomy: employees have discretion and decision-making authority  Task identity: employees perform an identifiable unit of work  Timely feedback on job performance

28. 13-28 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. Sociotechnical Job Design (3)  Multifunctional team with autonomy for generating successful product innovation is most widely used teamwork concept in U. S., Japan, and Europe  General Mills and Volvo have used self-managed work teams  Substantial investment in training  Managers function as coaches, rather than bosses – some managers resist this change.  Some workers may not want more authority and responsibility

29. 13-29 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. Work Centrality  Work centrality is the importance of work in a person's life, vs. other activities.  An economic need to work may be the most important factor in determining work centrality.

30. 13-30 McGraw-Hill/Irwin© 2003 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,All Rights Reserved. Rewards and Incentives  Managers everywhere use rewards to motivate their personnel  Some rewards are financial in nature such as salary raises, bonuses, and stock options  Others are non-financial such as feedback and recognition  In collectivist cultures, group rewards often work better than individual rewards