1. What Is Motivation? Motivation:
Is a set of forces that energize, direct, and sustain behavior
Can come from:
Internal “push” forces or
External “pull” forces

2. Sources of Motivation (Ex. 10.1)
INTERNAL
(PUSH FORCES)
EXTERNAL
(PULL FORCES)
Characteristics of
THE INDIVIDUAL
(examples)
Characteristics of
THE JOB
(examples)
Characteristics of
THE WORK SITUATION
(examples)
Needs
For security
For self-esteem
For achievement
For power
Attitudes
About self
About job
About supervisor
About organization
Goals
Task completion
Performance level
Career advancement
Feedback
For security
For self-esteem
Work load
Tasks
Variety
Scope
Discretion
How job is performed
Immediate social environment
Supervisor(s)
Workgroup members
Subordinates
Organizational actions
Rewards and compensation
Availability of training
Pressure for high levels of output

3. Motivation Theories Content Theories Process Theories Focus Theories
Personal needs that
workers attempt to satisfy.
Features in the work
environment that satisfy
a worker’s needs.
How different variables
can combine to
influence the amount
of effort put forth by
employees.
Theories
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
McClelland’s Acquired
Need Theory
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Equity Theory
Expectancy Theory
Social Cognitive Theory
Goal-Setting Theory

4. Content Theories of Motivation
Focus
Personal needs that
workers attempt to satisfy.
Features in the work
environment that satisfy
a worker’s needs.
Theories
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
McClelland’s Acquired
Need Theory
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Theories Focusing on
INTERNAL Factors
Theory Focusing on
EXTERNAL Factors

5. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory
Humans have five needs arranged in hierarchy of strength and influence
Individuals:
Satisfy most basic (prepotent) needs first
Move to the next level of needs after preceding needs is satisfied

6. Alderfer’s ERG Theory ERG = existence, relatedness, growth
Different levels of needs can be active at the same time
People can move back to a lower level need even after a high level need has been met

7. Maslow’s and Alderfer’s Needs Theories
Highest-order needs
Most essential (prepotent) needs
Self-actualization
Growth
Esteem
Belongingness
Relatedness
Safety
Existence
Physiological
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Categories
Alderfer’s Needs Hierarchy Categories

8. Acquired Needs Theory
Individuals have three “learned” needs: Power, affiliation, achievement
People with need for achievement:
Work on tasks of moderate difficulty
Take moderate risks
Take personal responsibility for one’s own actions
Receive specific and concrete feedback on one’s own performance

9. Two-Factor Theory
Motivators: Factors directly related to doing a job
Hygiene Factors: Elements associated with conditions surrounding the job
Supervision
Recognition
Job
Achievement
Growth
Compensation
Benefits
Responsibility
Nature of the work
Working conditions
Relations with co-workers

10. Effects of Hygiene Factors and Motivators
From the state of being neither satisfied nor dissatisfied, motivators can impel an employee’s motivation and performance to higher levels
Motivators
Intrinsic factors related to the
doing of the
job itself
Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied
Hygiene-Factors
Extrinsic factors related to conditions surrounding
the job
Hygiene factors must be satisfied first, leading to a state of being neither satisfied nor dissatisfied

11. Job Characteristics Model
Core Job
Characteristics
Skill variety
Task identity
Task significance
Feedback
Autonomy
Critical Psychological States
Experienced
meaningfulness
of the work
responsibility for
outcomes of the work
Knowledge of the actual
results of the work
activities
Outcomes
High:
Internal work
motivation
“Growth”
satisfaction
Work effectiveness
General job

12. Process Theories of Motivation
Focus
How different variables
can combine to
influence the amount
of effort put forth by
employees.
Theories
Equity Theory
Expectancy Theory
Social Cognitive Theory
Goal-Setting Theory

13. Equity Theory
Focuses on individuals’ comparisons of their own circumstances to those of others
Inputs (age, experience, education, etc.)
Outcomes (salary, benefits, titles, perks, etc.)
Ratios of an individual’s input/outcome versus that ratio of another person or people

14. Equity Theory IF: IS: THEN: AND I AM MOTIVATED TO:
The ratio of my outcomes to my inputs
Equal to the ratio of the other’s outcomes to inputs
I am satisfied
Do nothing.
Less then (<) the ratio of the other’s outcomes to inputs
I feel dissatisfied
Choose between:
Increasing my own outcomes
Decreasing my own inputs
Reevaluating the other’s inputs
Changing the referent
Leaving the situation
Adapted from Exhibit 10.8

15. Effort = (E  P) x (P  O) x V
Expectancy Theory
Focuses on thought processes people use when faced with choosing among alternatives
Three variables affect motivation:
Effort-to-performance (E  P): probability that certain effort leads to certain performance
Performance-to-outcome (P  O): probability that certain performance leads to certain outcome
Valence (V): anticipated value that a person attaches to the outcome
Effort = (E  P) x (P  O) x V

16. Components of Expectancy Theory
Effort
Performance
Outcome
(V: I do or do not value recognition from my supervisor)
E  P
(I believe high effort will lead to good performance)
P  O
(I believe high performance will lead to recognition from my supervisor)
E = effort P = performance
O = outcome V = valence

17. Social Cognitive Theory
Self-efficacy:
A person’s confidence that he or she can accomplish a given task in a specific situation
Three dimensions:
Magnitude, strength, and generality
High self-efficacy beliefs are associated with better work-related performance

18. Social Cognitive Theory: Methods to Increase Self-efficacy
Enactive
Mastery
Vicarious
Learning
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy
Verbal
Persuasion
Physiological or
Psychological
Arousal
Adapted from Exhibit 10.10

19. Goal-Setting Theory
Human action is directed by conscious goals and intentions
Two basic premises:
More challenging (higher or harder) goals, if accepted, result in higher levels of effort than easier goals
Specific goals result in higher levels of effort than vague goals

20. The Role of Reinforcements and Consequences

21. Reinforcements and Consequences
Desirable consequences that increase the likelihood of behavior being repeated in the future
Rewards given should be:
Equitable
Efficient
Available
Not exclusive
Visible
Reversible
Example:
Salesperson performs well gets an extra bonus for the year

22. Reinforcements and Consequences
Removal of undesirable consequences that increase the likelihood of behavior being repeated in the future
Example:
Salesperson who performs well is removed from territory that has difficult customers

23. Reinforcements and Consequences
Unwanted consequences following undesirable behavior to decrease the likelihood that it will be repeated
Example:
Salesperson who performs poorly is fired or demoted

24. Reinforcements and Consequences
The absence of positive consequences for behavior, lessening the likelihood of that behavior in the future
Example:
Salesperson tells a tasteless joke and is ignored in the hopes of discouraging such joking

25. Social Influences on Motivation

26. Influence of Values and Attitudes Toward Work
Affect what kinds of behaviors individuals will find rewarding and satisfying
Attitudes toward work
Work centrality
Degree of general importance that working has in the life of an individual
Differs between cultures