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B0H4M CHAPTER 14
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14.1 Individual Needs and Motivation Types of content theories: Hierarchy of needs theory ERG theory Two-factor theory Acquired needs theory
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Motivation and individual needs ◦ Motivation—the forces within the individual that account for the level, direction, and persistence of effort expended at work. Needs ◦ Unfulfilled physiological and psychological desires of an individual. ◦ Explain workplace behaviour and attitudes. ◦ Create tensions that influence attitudes and behaviour. ◦ Good managers and leaders facilitate employee need satisfaction.
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Hierarchy of needs theory ◦ Developed by Abraham Maslow. ◦ Lower-order and higher-order needs affect workplace behavior and attitudes. ◦ Lower-order needs: Physiological, safety, and social needs. Desires for physical and social well being. ◦ Higher-order needs: Esteem and self-actualization needs. Desire for psychological growth and development.
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ERG theory ◦ Developed by Clayton Alderfer. ◦ Three need levels: Existence needs — desires for physiological and material well-being. Relatedness needs — desires for satisfying interpersonal relationships. Growth needs — desires for continued psychological growth and development.
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Two-factor theory ◦ Developed by Frederick Herzberg. ◦ Hygiene factors: Elements of the job context. Sources of job dissatisfaction. ◦ Satisfier factors: Elements of the job content. Sources of job satisfaction and motivation.
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Acquired needs theory ◦ Developed by David McClelland. ◦ People acquire needs through their life experiences. ◦ Needs that are acquired: Need for Achievement (nAch) Need for Power (nPower) Need for Affiliation (nAff)
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14.2 Process theories of motivation ◦ How people make choices to work hard or not. ◦ Choices are based on: Individual preferences. Available rewards. Possible work outcomes. Types of process theories: ◦ Equity theory. ◦ Expectancy theory. ◦ Goal-setting theory. ◦ Self-efficacy theory.
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Equity Theory ◦ Developed by J. Stacy Adams. ◦ When people believe that they have been treated unfairly in comparison to others, they try to eliminate the discomfort and restore a perceived sense of equity to the situation. Perceived inequity. Perceived equity. ◦ People respond to perceived negative inequity by changing: Work inputs, Rewards received, Comparison points, Situation.
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Expectancy Theory ◦ Developed by Victor Vroom. ◦ Key expectancy theory variables: Expectancy — belief that working hard will result in desired level of performance. Instrumentality — belief that successful performance will be followed by rewards. ◦ Valence — value a person assigns to rewards and other work related outcomes. ◦ Motivation (M), expectancy (E), instrumentality (I), and valence (V) are related to one another in a multiplicative fashion: M = E x I x V ◦ If either E, I, or V is low, motivation will be low.
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Goal-setting theory ◦ Developed by Edwin Locke. ◦ Properly set and well-managed task goals can be highly motivating. ◦ Motivational effects of task goals: Provide direction to people in their work. Clarify performance expectations. Establish a frame of reference for feedback. Provide a foundation for behavioural self-management.
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Self-Efficacy Theory ◦ a person’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task ◦ Capability directly affects motivation higher self-efficacy will have higher expectancy. self-efficacy is linked to performance goal setting. ◦ Enactive mastery – person gains confidence through positive experience ◦ Vicarious modeling – learning by observing others ◦ Verbal persuasion – encouragement from others that one can perform a task ◦ Emotional arousal – high stimulation or energy to perform well in a situation
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14.3 Reinforcement Theory pf Motivation ◦ Law of effect — impact of type of consequence on future behavior. ◦ Operant conditioning: Applies law of effect to control behavior by manipulating its consequences.
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Operant conditioning strategies: ◦ Positive reinforcement Increases the frequency of a behaviour through the contingent presentation of a pleasant consequence. ◦ Negative reinforcement Increases the frequency of a behaviour through the contingent removal of an unpleasant consequence. ◦ Punishment Decreases the frequency of a behaviour through the contingent presentation of an unpleasant consequence. ◦ Extinction Decreases the frequency of a behaviour through the contingent removal of an pleasant consequence.
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Successful implementation of positive reinforcement is based on ◦ Law of contingent reinforcement — Reward delivered only if desired behaviour is exhibited. ◦ Law of immediate reinforcement — More immediate the delivery of a reward, the more reinforcement value it has.
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14.4 Motivation and Job design Job ◦ A collection of tasks performed in support of organizational objectives. Job design ◦ The process of creating or defining jobs by assigning specific work tasks to individuals and groups. ◦ Jobs should be designed so that both performance and satisfaction result.
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Job simplification. ◦ Standardizing work procedures and employing people in well-defined and highly specialized tasks. ◦ Simplified jobs are narrow in job scope and low in job depth. ◦ Automation. Total mechanization of a job. Most extreme form of job simplification.
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Job rotation and job enlargement: ◦ Expands job scope. ◦ Job rotation. Increases task variety by periodically shifting workers among jobs involving different task assignments. ◦ Job enlargement. Increases task variety by combining two or more tasks previously assigned to separate workers. Horizontal loading.
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Job enrichment. ◦ Building more opportunities for satisfaction into a job by expanding its content. ◦ Expands both job scope and job depth. ◦ Frequently accomplished through vertical loading.
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Core job characteristics: ◦ Skill variety. ◦ Task identity. ◦ Task significance. ◦ Autonomy. ◦ Feedback.
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Improving core job characteristics: ◦ Form natural units of work. ◦ Combine tasks. ◦ Establish client relationships. ◦ Open feedback channels. ◦ Practice vertical loading.
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Flexible working hours. ◦ Any work schedule that gives employees some choice in the pattern of their daily work hours. Core time — all employees must be at work. Flextime — allows employees to schedule around personal and family responsibilities. Compressed workweek
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Job sharing. ◦ One full-time job is split between two or more persons. Telecommuting. ◦ A work arrangement that allows a portion of scheduled work hours to be completed outside of the office. ◦ Hoteling. ◦ Virtual offices.
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◦ Freedom from Constraints of commuting. Fixed hours. Special work attire. Direct contact with supervisors. ◦ Increased productivity. ◦ Fewer distractions. ◦ Being one’s own boss. ◦ Having more personal time. Potential advantages of telecommuting Management 2e - Chapter 1424
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◦ Working too much. ◦ Having less personal time. ◦ Difficulty in separating work and personal life. ◦ Less time for family. ◦ Feelings of isolation. ◦ Loss of visibility for promotion. ◦ Difficulties supervising work-at-home employees from a distance. Potential disadvantages of telecommuting Management 2e - Chapter 1425
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Part-time work. ◦ Work done on any schedule less than the standard 40-hour workweek and does not qualify person as a full-time employee. ◦ Contingency workers Part-time workers who supplement the full- time workforce, often on a long-term basis. Now constitute 30 percent of the American workforce. Management 2e - Chapter 1426
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Implications of part-time work: ◦ Provides employers with flexibility in controlling labour costs and dealing with cyclical labour demands. ◦ Temporary workers may lack commitment and be less productive. ◦ Contingency workers are often paid less and don’t receive important fringe benefits. Management 2e - Chapter 1427
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