1. Lecture 1

2. Introduction about Biochemistry Biochemistry :- (from Greek : βίος, bios, "life") is the study of the chemical processes in living organisms. Greekorganisms It deals with the structure and function of cellular components, such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and other biomolecules.structureproteinscarbohydrateslipidsnucleic acids biomolecules

3. Carbohydrates # Carbohydrates (from 'hydrates of carbon') or saccharides (Greek meaning "sugar") are simple organic compounds that are aldehydes or ketones with many hydroxyl groups added, usually one on each carbon atom that is not part of the aldehyde or ketone functional group.hydratescarbonGreeksugarorganic compoundsaldehydes ketoneshydroxyl functional group Carbohydrates are the most abundant biomolecules.biomolecules They fill numerous roles in living things, such as: the storage and transport of energy (starch, glycogen) and structural components (cellulose in plants, chitin in animals).energystarchglycogencellulosechitin Additionally, carbohydrates and their derivatives play major roles in the working process of the immune system, fertilization, pathogenesis, blood clotting, and development.immune system fertilizationpathogenesisblood clottingdevelopment

4. All carbohydrates can be classified as either: Monosaccharides Oligosaccharides Polysaccharides.

5. # Monosaccharides Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates in that they cannot be hydrolyzed to smaller carbohydrates. The general chemical formulaof an unmodified monosaccharide is (CH2O) n, where n is any number of three or greater. chemical formula Classification of monosaccharide Monosaccharides are classified according to three different characteristics: 1_the placement of its carbonyl groupcarbonyl 2_the number of carbon atoms it containscarbon 3_and its chiral handednesschiral

6. If the carbonyl group is an aldehyde, the monosaccharide is an aldose; if the carbonyl group is a ketone, the monosaccharide is a ketose. Monosaccharides with three carbon atoms are called trioses, those with four are called tetroses, five are called pentoses, six are hexoses, and so on.aldehydealdoseketoneketosetrioses tetrosespentoseshexoses These two systems of classification are often combined. For example, glucose is an aldohexose (a six-carbon aldehyde), ribose is an aldopentose (a five-carbon aldehyde), and fructose is a ketohexose (a six-carbon ketone).glucosealdohexoseribosealdopentosefructoseketohexose Use in living organisms Monosaccharides are the major source of fuel for metabolism, being used both as an energy source (glucose being the most important in nature) and in biosynthesis. When monosaccharides are not needed by cells they are quickly converted into another form, such as polysaccharidesmetabolismbiosynthesis

7. # Disaccharides Two joined monosaccharides are called disaccharides and represent the simplest polysaccharides.disaccharides Examples include sucrose and lactose.sucroselactose They are composed of two monosaccharide units bound together by a covalent bond known as a glycosidic linkage formed via a dehydration reaction, resulting in the loss of a hydrogen atom from one monosaccharide and a hydroxyl group from the other. The formula of unmodified disaccharides is C12H22O11.covalentglycosidic linkage dehydration reactionhydrogenhydroxyl group formula

8. SucroseSucrose, pictured to the right, is the most abundant disaccharide and the main form in which carbohydrates are transported in plants. It is composed of one D-glucose molecule and one D-fructose molecule.plantsD-glucoseD-fructose LactoseLactose, a disaccharide composed of one D-galactose molecule and one D-glucose molecule, occurs naturally in milk.D-galactoseD-glucosemilk

9. # Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides  Oligosaccharides and polysaccharides are composed of longer chains of monosaccharide units bound together by glycosidic bonds.  The distinction between the two is based upon the number of monosaccharide units present in the chain. Oligosaccharides typically contain between two and nine monosaccharide units, and polysaccharides contain greater than ten monosaccharide units.   Most of the carbohydrates found in nature occur in the form of high molecular weight polymers called polysaccharides.

10.  When polysaccharides are composed of a single monosaccharide building block, they are termed homopolysaccharides.  Polysaccharides composed of more than one type of monosaccharide are termed heteropolysaccharides.  Polysaccharides represent an important class of biological polymer. polymer  Their function in living organisms is usually either structure or storage related.function  Starch is used as a storage polysaccharide in plants, being found in the form of both amylose and the branched amylopectin. In animals, the structurally similar but more densely branched glycogen is used instead. Glycogen's properties allow it to be metabolized more quickly, which suits the active lives of locomotive animals. Starchamyloseamylopectin glycogen

11.  Cellulose and chitin are examples of structural polysaccharides. Cellulosechitin  Cellulose is used in the cell walls of plants and other organisms, and is claimed to be the most abundant organic molecule on earth. It has a variety of uses including in the paper and textile industry and as a feedstock for the production of rayon (in the viscose process), cellulose acetate, celluloid and nitrocellulose.cell walls  Chitin has a similar structure to cellulose but has nitrogen containing side branches, increasing its strength.nitrogen  It is found in arthropod exoskeletons and in the cell walls of some fungi. It has a variety of uses, for example in surgical threads.arthropodexoskeletonsfungisurgical threads  Other polysaccharides include callose or laminarin, xylan, mannan, fucoidan, and galactomannan.calloselaminarinxylan mannangalactomannan

12. Images of starch (top), glycogen (middle), and cellulose (bottom).

13. # CHIRAL OR OPTICAL ISOMERS  Some chemical compounds have optical activity in the sense that these compounds have the ability to rotate the plane of polarized light. Polarized light has light waves all traveling parallel to each other.  Ordinary light has light waves traveling in all directions. When polarized light is passed through a solution of an optically active compound, the plane of polarization is rotated to the right or the left. The angle of rotation can be measured in a polarimeter.  An optically active organic compound can be identified by finding a chiral carbon. A chiral carbon is one that has four different "groups" attached to it.  The groups can be anything from a single H to functional groups to one or more other carbons.

14. Each carbon atom bearing a hydroxyl group (-OH), with the exception of the first and last carbons, are asymmetric, making them stereocenters with two possible configurations each (R or S).hydroxyl groupasymmetricstereocenters Because of this asymmetry, a number of isomers may exist for any given monosaccharide formula.isomers The aldohexose D-glucose, for example, has the formula (C·H2O)6, of which all but two of its six carbons atoms are stereogenic, making D-glucose one of 24 = 16 possible stereoisomers stereoisomers Nomenclature for stereoisomer D and L designations are based on the configuration about the single asymmetric carbon in glyceraldehyde. For sugars with more than one chiral center, the D or L designation refers to the asymmetric carbon farthest

15. from the aldehyde or keto group. Most naturally occurring sugars are D isomers. D & L sugars are mirror images of one another. They have the same name. For example, D-glucose and L-glucose are shown at right. Other stereoisomers have unique names, e.g., glucose, mannose, galactose, etc. The number of stereoisomers is 2 n, where n is the number of asymmetric centers. The six-carbon aldoses have 4 asymmetric centers, and thus 16 stereoisomers (8 D-sugars and 8 L-sugars).

16. # Conformation of carbohydrates In organic chemistry, monosaccharides, the simplest carbohydrates are represented in three ways: the Fischer projection, Haworth projection, and the chair conformation of D-glucose. By the time you are finished reading this tutorial, you will have learned how to represent monosaccharides in these three ways.

17. The aldehyde or ketone group of a straight-chain monosaccharide will react reversibly with a hydroxyl group on a different carbon atom to form a hemiacetal or hemiketal, forming a heterocyclic ring with an oxygen bridge between two carbon atoms.hemiacetalhemiketalheterocyclic

18. Monosaccharides can exist in an open chain (acyclic) form, or in closed chain (cyclic) form. The open chain form of monosaccharides is illustrated with Fischer projections. A Haworth projection can be used to represent the cyclic form of monosaccharides. The five-member closed chain form of a monosaccharide is known as a furanose, while the six-member cyclic form of amonosaccharide is known as a pyranose. Often six-member monosaccharide rings can also be represented in chair conformation.

19. Fructose can form either:  _a six-member pyranose ring, by reaction of the C2 keto group with the hydroxyl on C6 _ a 5-member furanose ring, by reaction of the C2 keto group with the hydroxyl on C5.

20. Cyclization of glucose produces a new asymmetric center at C1, with the two stereoisomers called anomers, a & b. Haworth projections represent the cyclic sugars as having essentially planar rings, with the OH at the anomeric C1 extending either: _ below the ring (α)  _above the ring (β).

21. Because of the tetrahedral nature of carbon bonds, the cyclic form of pyranose Sugars actually assume a "chair" or "boat" configuration, depending on the sugar