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Group Decision Support and Groupware Technologies
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A Bit of History The existence of support mechanisms for MDM activities predates the technology (Churchill’s cabinet war room and its wall of maps). The 1960s and 70s saw the addition of slide projectors and overheads. The computer was the next logical step in the 1970s and 80s. Today there are entire facilities (UA and Claremont) devoted to MDM activities
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Group Decision Making Holsapple suggests we use the term multiparticipant decision maker (MDM) A group is the MDM structure where multiple decision makers completely interact A team is the MDM structure where members advise one decision maker but do not interact A committee is the MDM structure with a single decision maker and member interaction
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Hierarchical Classification of MDM Structures
Decision Structure Collaborative Non-Collaborative Group Team Individual Consensus Majority Committee Implementation Communication among non-decision-makers is relevant Communication among non-decision-makers is irrelevant Formal Participants Multiple Decision-makers Single Decision-maker No formal sources All must agree Stated % must agree Collective communication between participants & Decision-maker Interactive communication between non-decision-maker participants Results directly from decision Results directly from recommendation
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Basic MDM Structures Group Team Committee
Multiple DMs with complete interaction Team Single DM with no participant interaction Committee Single DM with complete participant interaction
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Basic Communication Network Structures
Wheel Network Circle Network Completely Connected Network Chain Network
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Principal Characteristics of Network Structures
Highly Centralized – Wheel, Chain Efficient for routine and recurring decisions They tend to strengthen the leadership position of the central members They tend to result in a stable set of interaction among the participants They tend to produce lower levels of satisfaction among the participants Highly Decentralized – Circle, Completely Connected They tend to produce higher levels of satisfaction among the participants They facilitate non-routine or nonrecurring decisions They promote innovative and creative solutions
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Group Behaviors and Norms
MDMs establish norms that guide the decision-making process A norm specifies what group members are expected to do under given circumstances Norm “sending” can be through examples, peer review or sanctioning
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Factors Used in Determining Decision Structure
The importance of the quality of the decision The extent to which the DM possesses the knowledge and expertise to make the decision The extent to which potential participants have the necessary information The degree of structuredness of the problem context The degree to which acceptance or commitment is critical to successful implementation The probability of acceptance The degree of motivation among the participants to achieve organizational goals The degree of potential conflict among the participants
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Matrix for MDM Structure Selection
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The Problem With Groups
Size: in general, member satisfaction and cohesiveness decreases with group size. In large groups, subgroups or internal coalitions tend to form. Groupthink: in large groups, people tend to think in ways that achieve unanimity instead of creativity.
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Other Sociological Issues
Conflict: the desire to be seen as a good team member can lead to conflict avoidance. Anonymity: one method used to control sources of conflict is to allow members to participate anonymously. Gender Issues: males and females tend to place different values on different skills, but this may be a strength in an MDM setting.
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Negotiating and Deciding
The decision may involve multiple viewpoints, thus creating the need for negotiation. The design of the support mechanism for the MDM must accommodate the activities of negotiation. These activities include equitable access to information and support for a wide variety of communication structures.
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Effects Related to MDM Size
Participant interaction tends to decrease with increase in size Affective or emotional relationships tend to decrease with increase in size Central, dominant leadership tends to increase with size Conflict is resolved with political rather than analytical solutions as size increases
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Potential Consequences of Groupthink
Tends to preclude a complete and open-minded analysis of opportunities in the development of objectives Inhibits a meaningful search for information and tends to bias any searches toward a self-fulfilling selectivity Limits the participants’ ability to impartially appraise alternatives Often results in a complete failure to consider possibilities associated with cost of failure which, in turn, tends to result in choice selections that are more risky than is warranted by the payoff. Tends to eliminate the formation of contingency or fallback positions
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MDM Support Technology Variables
Personal Factors Attitude Abilities Individual motives Background Situational Factors Reasons for group membership Stage in group development Existing social networks Group structure Work group norms Power relationships Status relationships Group cohesiveness Density (group size, room size, interpersonal distance) Anonymity Facilitator Contextual Variables Technological support Degree Type Task characteristics Complexity Nature Degree of uncertainty I. Situational Factors Depth of analysis Participation Consensus reaching Time to reach the decision II. Communication Characteristics Clarification efforts Efficiency of the communication Exchange of information Nonverbal communication Task-oriented communication III. Interpersonal characteristics Cooperation Domination of a few members IV. Structure imposed by the technology I. Characteristics of the decision Quality Variability of quality over time Breadth II. Implementation of the decision Cost Ease Commitment of participants III. Attitude of participants toward decision Acceptance Comprehension Satisfaction Confidence I. Attitude toward group process Willingness to work with participants in the future Group Process Task-related Outcomes Group-related Outcomes
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MDM Support Technology Categorization
DSS Organizational Decision Support Systems Group Support Systems Group DSS
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Objectives of MDM Support Technologies
Process support mechanisms focus on facilitating interaction Process structure mechanisms govern the communication activities Task support mechanisms can select, organize or derive information Task structure mechanisms provide access to techniques that filter, combine and analyze knowledge relevant to the task
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Sources of Gains in MDM Activities
Collective has greater knowledge than any single participant Allows for synergistic results otherwise not obtainable Interaction stimulates the generation of knowledge or information otherwise unavailable Participants can improve individual performance through learning from others Improved evaluation over individual decision-making structure
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Sources of Losses in MDM Activities
Relative allocation of speaking time is reduced with MDM size Can result in idea production blocking Can produce information overload much faster Participants may not be able to remember all the contributions of others Pressures resulting in conformity can be exacerbated Can increase evaluation apprehension in participants Allows for “free-riding” or social loafing of lazy or non-participative individuals Can promote cognitive inertia or groupthink Increases opportunity for socialization over goal focus Increases decision context coordination activities Can allow for partial task or knowledge analysis
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Classes/Types of MDM Support Technology
Classification by feature – DeSanctis and Gallupe proposed a three-level scheme based on the features offered: Level 1: primarily intended to facilitate communication among members Level 2 : designed to reduce uncertainty Level 3: help regulate the decision process
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DeSanctis and Gallupe MDM System Classification
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Supporting Groupwork with Computerized Systems
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Classes/Types of MDM Support Technology (cont.)
Classification by technology – Kraemer and King focused on the technology applied: Electronic Boardroom Teleconference Room Group Network Information Center Collaboration Lab Decision Room
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Kraemer and King MDM Classification by Technology
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Decision Room MDM Support Functions
Electronic brainstorming Topic commentary Issue analysis Voting and preference indication Policy formation Stakeholder analysis Organization of ideas Evaluation of alternatives Survey and Questionnaire creation and administration Multiple format file readers Participant dictionary Enterprise analysis of decision outcome on organization MDM session management
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Groupware Software designed to support collaboration, including capturing and storing the information exchanged Current market leaders are Lotus Notes and Domino, Microsoft Exchange, Novell GroupWise and Oracle Office Individual tools inside the software suite include a meeting manager (Lotus Sametime) and message exchange (Lotus Notes Mail)
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A Lotus Sametime Meeting Center Screen
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A Typical Lotus Notes Messaging Screen Layout
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Groupware Classification
Ellis, et al proposed a classification system based on type of support it provides: Messaging systems Conferencing systems Collaborative authoring systems Group DSS Coordination systems Intelligent agent systems
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Forces Driving Groupware Development
Some of the major factors include: Increased productivity Reduced number of meetings Increased automation of routine workflow Need for better global coordination Availability of widespread networks Coleman and Khanna list 10 other factors.
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Forces In Favor of Groupware Adoption
Increased cost control Increased productivity Improved customer service Support for total quality management (TQM) activities Reduced number of meetings Increased automation of routine workflow processes Desire to extend the organization to include both supplier and customer Need to integrate geophysically dislocated teams Increased competitive advantage through faster time to market Need for better global coordination Creation of services that differentiate the organization Leveraging of professional expertise and knowledge Availability of widespread network infrastructures (i.e., Internet, WWW) Improved price/performance ratios of both hardware and software necessary Increased use of ad hoc teams
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Common MDM Coordination Methods
Nominal Group Technique Delphi Technique Arbitration Issue-based Information System Nemawashi
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Nominal Group Technique
Each participant writes down ideas about what the decision should be. In turn, each participant presents his or her ideas, which are recorded on a whiteboard. No discussion occurs here. After all ideas are presented, participants may question others. Each participant votes on each idea.
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Delphi Technique Essentially the same as nominal group technique except the participants never meet. A survey instrument is used to collect initial input from members. A second survey is sent with a summary of the collective results. These steps repeat until either a consensus or majority view is reached.
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Arbitration Most appropriate when the members of the MDM represent opposing factors. Participants agree that if mutually agreeable alternatives are not found, an outside arbitrator will get involved. The arbitrator then selects the alternative he or she deems most appropriate.
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Issue-Based Information System (IBIS)
A structured argumentation method. An IBIS is represented as a graph with nodes and links. The IBIS begins with selection of a root issue node, then the various position nodes are linked to the root. These position nodes are then evaluated based on the arguments attached to them.
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Nemawashi (widely used in Japan)
One or more members of the MDM are designated as coordinators. The coordinators then select remaining participants. Coordinators construct a choice set and then experts rate the choices. Coordinator selects a choice based on results in 2.
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Nemawashi (cont.) The alternative is circulated; the coordinator seeks consensus through persuasion and negotiation. If consensus is reached, coordinators circulate a document that each MDM member signs off on.
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The Virtual Workplace Many worldwide organizations are trading real estate for collaborative technology. Work is becoming a thing you do rather than a place you go. The biggest changes brought about by the virtual workplace may be cultural or sociological rather than technological.
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Products and Tools for GDSS/GSS and Successful Implementation
Organizing a GSS session—Face-to-face, same time/same place electronic meetings generally follow a common progression The group leader meets with the facilitator to plan the meeting—select the software tools and develop an agenda The participants meet in the decision room, the leader poses a question or problem to the group The participants type their ideas or comments (i.e., brainstorm), and the results are displayed publicly
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Products and Tools for GDSS/GSS and Successful Implementation
Organizing a GSS session The facilitator, using idea organization software, searches for common themes, topics, and ideas and organizes them into rough categories, the results are publicly displayed The leader starts a discussion, the participants prioritize the ideas The top 5 or 10 topics are sent to idea-generation software following a discussion; the process can be repeated or a final vote can be taken
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Products and Tools for GDSS/GSS and Successful Implementation
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Products and Tools for GDSS/GSS and Successful Implementation
GSS success factors Organizational commitment An executive sponsor An operating sponsor User involvement and training A user-seductive interface
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Products and Tools for GDSS/GSS and Successful Implementation
GSS success factors Crafting a collaborative culture—three steps toward creating a work environment that supports collaboration Know what you want Determine resource constraints Determine what technologies can be used to overcome resource constraints
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Products and Tools for GDSS/GSS and Successful Implementation
Implementation issues for online collaboration To connect business partners, an organization needs an effective collaborative environment; provided by groupware suites The need to connect collaborative tools with file management products on an organization's intranet Automatic language translation Protocols are needed for easy integration of different applications and to standardize communication
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Emerging Collaboration Tools: From VoIP to Wikis
Voice over IP (VoIP) (Internet telephony) Communication systems that transmit voice calls over Internet Protocol-based networks
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Emerging Collaboration Tools: From VoIP to Wikis
Voice over IP (VoIP) Benefits of VoIP for business Allows CIOs to explore different deployment options for company’s communications needs Lowers total cost of ownership Lowers operational costs Reduces hardware requirements on the server side for certain applications Provides a holistic approach to security Helps streamline workflows Enables optimized conferencing tools to replace business travel
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Emerging Collaboration Tools: From VoIP to Wikis
Voice over IP (VoIP) Benefits of VoIP for users Eliminates unwanted interruptions and unproductive actions by intelligently filtering communications Speed decision making by providing access to real-time presence information, Initiates ad hoc conferencing/collaboration sessions Enables participation in conferencing sessions quickly and easily via a variety of mobile devices
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Emerging Collaboration Tools: From VoIP to Wikis
Collaborative workflow Wiki A piece of server software available in a Web site that allows users to freely create and edit Web page content using any Web browser Wikilog A blog that allows everyone to participate as a peer; any one may add, delete, or change content
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Emerging Collaboration Tools: From VoIP to Wikis
Collaboration hubs The central point of control for an e-market. A single c-hub, representing one e-market owner, can host multiple collaboration spaces (c-spaces) in which trading partners use c-enablers to exchange data with the c-hub
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Emerging Collaboration Tools: From VoIP to Wikis
Collaborative networks In a collaborative network, partners at any point in the network can interact with each other, bypassing traditional partners Corporate (enterprise) portal A gateway for entering a corporate Web site, enabling communication, collaboration, and access to company information
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Collaborative Efforts in Design, Planning, and Project Management
Collaborative design and product development During product development, engineering and design drawings can be shared over a secure network among the contract firm, testing facility, marketing firm, and downstream manufacturing and service companies
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Collaborative Efforts in Design, Planning, and Project Management
Collaborative planning, forecasting, and replenishment (CPFR) Project in which suppliers and retailers collaborate in their planning and demand forecasting to optimize the flow of materials along the supply chain Vendor-managed inventory (VMI) The practice of retailers making suppliers responsible for determining when to order and how much to order
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Collaborative Efforts in Design, Planning, and Project Management
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Collaborative Efforts in Design, Planning, and Project Management
Developing large-scale projects requires collaboration of a large number of units and individuals inside and outside an organization Effective and efficient communication and collaboration is a must
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Creativity, Idea Generation, and Computerized Support
Personality-related creativity traits include: Inventiveness Independence Individuality Enthusiasm Flexibility
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Creativity, Idea Generation, and Computerized Support
Creativity can be learned and improved” Some specific creativity measures in brainstorming: The quantitative (number of ideas) The qualitative (quality of ideas) components Stimulation by other creative people in the environment can push a group forward Stimulation can come directly from exciting ideas developed as a consequence of association among creative people Stimulation may even come from friction among employees
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Creativity, Idea Generation, and Computerized Support
Idea generation through electronic brainstorming Idea generation The process by which people generate ideas, usually supported by software; for example, developing alternative solutions to a problem With collaborative computing-support tools, the individuals do all the thinking, and the software system encourages them to proceed
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Creativity, Idea Generation, and Computerized Support
Creativity-enhancing software Computer programs that exhibit creative behavior Electronic idea generation for problem solving Software that facilitates human creativity
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