1. Chapter 2 – 1956 to 1964 Computing Comes of Age IBM 1130 1

2. Introduction  Clerks in offices performed many “busy” tasks- Comptometer (Pg.48)  Common Problem: Needed to store/ retrieve large amounts of data- quickly and easily 2

3. Core Memory – a radical innovation  Small, donut shaped materials threaded together with fine wires  See Description- Pg. 49 Hysteresis – from Germany after WWII  Advantages Small – non-volatile Random Access  Began to install in existing computers, e.g. Whirlwind 3

4. Core Development  German fire-control systems  Aiken’s Mark IV, 1952 - An Wang  ENIAC, 1952 – Burroughs Corp, 2D  Whirlwind, 1952 – Jay Forrester, 3D Made it the “fastest” 4

5. Core Memory 5

6. Air Force SAGE  Semi-Automatic Ground Environment Early called “Whirlwind II” – similarity Core Memory 8,192 – 32-bit words 55,000 vacuum tubes per system  Radar+Aircraft+Telephone+Radio+Ships  To detect & identify enemy aircraft  IBM won contract Delivered Prototype 1955; 30 more Each system = 2 identical computers Needed hundreds of thousands high-quality core 6

7. IBM and SAGE  ½ Billion in revenue for IBM  Began producing own core  1956: IBM passed UNIVAC in Installations of large systems 7

8. In the Meantime…..  While IBM and UNIVAC were leading, others did get in the game Honeywell General Electric (GE) RCA 8

9. Honeywell  Raytheon failed to deliver late 1940’s government bid Joined with Honeywell, 1955  1957- Datamatic 1000 Immediately Obsolete Used Tubes, not transistors  Withdrew; re-entered in 1960’s 9

10. General Electric (GE)  1955- leading electronics firm $3 billion in sales 200,000 employees  1953- OARAC- USAF Sr. Management decided not to market Why? IBM was GE’s largest customer of vacuum tubes 10

11. GE (continued)  Late 1950’s –ERMA Electronic Recording Machine Accounting  “1-time project”; transistors + MICR  1958 - Bank of America & Ronald Reagan unveiling  Research excellent but Mgmt. never committed to computer industry  1970- sold to Honeywell- $200 million 11

12. RCA  $940 million sales; 98,000 employees  BIZMAC, 1955 (Arnold Spielberg, engineer) 1 full system, few smaller ones Specialized architecture Several Hundred tape drives Specialized processors; sort & search Failure- behind improvements (tube to transistors)  Another specialized failure: UNIVAC File 12

13. Architecture -- Read Pg. 58-64  By end of 1960, approx. 6,000 G.P. computers installed in the U.S.  Word Length: Prior to core memory, fetch 1 Bit 7-12 decimal digits; 30-50 bits  Long words costly & complex Soon various lengths; Variable vs. Fixed 1954: IBM 704-36 bit word length Today - not totally standard 13

14. Architecture Cont.  Registers: Sets of circuits- 1950’s Accumulator; program counter; index register (pg. 60) 1956 – British, 7 GP registers, 1 PC  Addresses Single address instructions heavily used Then 2 & 3 address schemes 0 address - Stack architecture  Later in calculators 14

15. Architecture Cont.  I/O Channels - processor  UNIVAC innovations Buffer: to help slow I/O Interrupt: I/O when necessary  Channel: separate processor for I/O “Becoming” 2- processor system I/O Channel became defining characteristic of mainframe Expensive but necessary 15

16. Architecture Cont.  Floating Point Arithmetic Hardware (expensive) vs. Software (slow) Scientific vs. Commercial – parallel dev. IBM 360 – combined both components 1 st Computers in 1940’s had FP Hardware (Zuse, Bell Labs) Co-Processors; incorporated into the 486 chip 16

17. Transistor  Bell Labs- early 1950’s Replacement for tubes, not reliable for core Regulated Monopoly, telephone only Released transistor information (small fee)  Philco-surface barrier transistor Mass produced & reliable Leader SOLO: 1 st general purpose, transistorized computer in U.S. (for NSA)- 1956 to 1958 17

18. Transistor (cont.) TRANSAC; S-2000 (1960) UNIVAC- Solid State 80 Began Second Generation 1962- Ford bought, Philco out of computer business  ** Second Generation  1962- Ford bought Philco Dropped computer business 18

19. Inventors of Transistor 19 Shockley (seated), Bardeen (glasses), Brattain, in 1946 Nobel Prize, 1956

20. Early Transistors 20

21. IBM  By 1960, dominated computer industry  1952- Justice Dept. alleged anti-trust violations in punch card business 1956- Consent Decree  Must SELL and rent its computers  Third-party vendors bought & leased IBM  Stock soared, in spite of critics  Combination: marketing, manufacturing, & technical innovations 21

22. IBM cont’d  Criticism Took innovations from smaller companies 704: core, floating-point, FORTRAN was superior to UNIVAC Sales Force + Manufacturing Techniques + Field Service  success 22

23. IBM (cont.)  Model 305 Disk Announced 1956; marketed 1957 Pack of 50, 24’’ platters 1200 RPM 5 M characters- Random Access “Boundary Layer”- air RAMAC – Random Access Memory Accounting Machine  1 st United Airlines for reservations  Watson, Jr. “greatest product day…” 23

24. IBM’s 7094 (early 1960’s)  709 tubes  7090 transistors (USAF)  Mainframe: floor, climate  36-bit word, 150 Kb core  Console – detailed control  Typical Process (p. 73) Batch Processing Separate 1401 for printing  $1.6 million - $30,000 month 24

25. IBM 1401 & 1620 (Late 1950’s)  Low-end, compact (sold 10K 1401) Made possible by transistors  Stored program  Core  1403 Printer Fastest of its time – 600 lpm 25

26. Conclusion  Second Generation  Transition from tubes to transistors  Core Memories  Disks  Business computing applications  IBM success 26