1. FORGETTING & MEMORY CONSTRUCTION

2. Why do we forget? Forgetting can occur at any memory stage
Retrieval from long-term memory
Depending on interference, retrieval
cues, moods, and motives, some
things get retrieved, some don’t
Long-term storage
Some items are altered or lost
Short-term memory
A few items are both noticed
and encoded
Sensory memory
The senses momentarily register
amazing detail
Forgetting can occur at any memory stage
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
key words: forgetting

3. Forgetting as Storage Failure

4. Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)
German philosopher who did early memory studies with nonsense syllables
Developed the forgetting curve, also called the “retention curve” or “Ebbinghaus curve”

5. The Forgetting Curve
Hermann Ebbinghaus first began to study forgetting using nonsense syllables
Nonsense syllables are three letter combinations that look like words but are meaningless (ROH, KUF)

6. Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve
Ebbinghaus found that the more times he practiced a list of nonsense syllables on day 1, the fewer repetitions he required to relearn it on day 2.
Said simply, the more time we spend learning new information, the more we retain.

7. How to combat the Forgetting Curve: Overlearning
Continuing to rehearse after the point the information has been learned
Rehearsing past the point of mastery
Helps ensure information will be available even under stress

8. Forgetting as retrieval failure
Retrieval—process of accessing stored information
Sometimes info IS encoded into LTM, but we can’t retrieve it
Retrieval failure
leads to forgetting
Retrieval X
Encoding
Short-term
memory
Long-term
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
key words: forgetting; retrieval; long-term memory

9. Tip of the tongue phenomenon
TOT—involves the sensation of knowing that specific information is stored in long-term memory but being unable to retrieve it
Can’t retrieve info that you absolutely know is stored in your LTM
key words: forgetting; retrieval; long-term memory; tip of the tongue phenomenon

10. Recall vs. Recognition tests
Recall tests - must retrieve info learned earlier.
Two step process: 1) generate a mental list, 2) recognize the answer from your list.
Examples: Fill-in-the-blank test; essay exams
Recognition tests - only need to identify the correct answer.
1 step process: 1) recognize answer from the list. List was already generated for you.
Example: Multiple choice tests
key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues; recall; recognition

11. What is the capital of Vermont?
Raise your hand if you know the answer
key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues; recall

12. What is the capital of Vermont?
A. Brattleboro
B. Montpelier
C. Rutland
D. Cabot
Raise your hand if you know the answer
Which was easier: recall or recognition?
For your psychology exam, would you rather have a fill-in-the-blank or a multiple choice test?
key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues; recall; recognition

13. What is the capital of Vermont?
A. Brattleboro
B. Montpelier
C. Rutland
D. Cabot
Raise your hand if you know the answer
Which was easier: recall or recognition?
For your psychology exam, would you rather have a fill-in-the-blank or a multiple choice test?
key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues; recall; recognition

14. Retrieval Cue Theories
Forgetting the result of using improper retrieval cues
Retrieval cue failure – inability to recall LT memories because of inadequate or missing cues.
Memories only appear to be forgotten. You are only lacking the right retrieval cue.
key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues

15. Which retrieval cues work best?
Context-dependent memory - improved ability to remember if tested in the same environment as the original learning environment
Better recall if tested in classroom where you initially learned information
If learning room smells of chocolate or mothballs, people will recall more info if tested in room with the same smell
compared to different smell or no smell at all
key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues; encoding specificity principle; context-dependent effects

16. State-dependent effects
Recall improved if internal physiological or emotional state is the same during testing and initial encoding
If you are in an altered state of consciousness you will be more likely to remember SOME/MORE things you learned or did when in that state than if asked to recall in another state.
key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues; context-dependent effects; state-dependent effects

17. Mood Congruence
Mood Congruence – Mood tends to evoke memories of when you were in that same mood.
Positive mood will likely cause you to remember other times you were positive.

18. Mood Congruence effects
Example:
Bipolar depressives
Info learned in manic state, recall more if testing done during manic state
Info learned in depressed state, recall more if testing done during depressed state
key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues; state-dependent effects; mood congruence

19. Memory Construction

20. Reconstructing Memories: Sources of Potential Errors – Why the details change over time
Interference of new or old information can alter memories

21. Sources of Potential Errors
Source Confusion – true source of the memory (how, when, & where it was acquired) is forgotten.
False Memory – distorted and inaccurate memory that feels completely real and is often accompanied by all the emotional impact of a real memory.

22. Memory Jigsaw Analogy
Memories, rather than being like a video tape, are formed as bits and pieces.
People may retrieve only some of the pieces of the memory
Brain fills in the blanks and doesn’t care if its right

23. Elizabeth Loftus
Has found that subjects’ memories vary based on the wording of questions
Demonstrated the misinformation effect

24. Misinformation Effect
Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event
Affects eyewitness testimony
Elizabeth Loftis explains her experiments on Misinformation/attribution effect.

25. Memory Distortion
Memory can be distorted as people try to fit new info into existing schemas
Giving misleading information after an event causes subjects to unknowingly distort their memories to incorporate the new misleading information
Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; schemas

26. Loftus Experiment Subjects shown video of an accident between two cars
Leading question:
“About how fast were the cars going
when they smashed into each other?”
Memory construction
Subjects shown video of an accident between two cars
Some subjects asked: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?
Others asked: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; Loftus; misleading information

27. Loftus Results Word Used in Question Average Speed Estimate smashed
collided
bumped
hit
contacted
41 m.p.h.
39 m.p.h.
38 m.p.h.
34 m.p.h.
32 m.p.h.
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)

28. Eyewitness Testimony Scripts—type of schema
Mental organization of events in time
Example of a classroom script: Come into class, sit down, talk to friends, bell rings, instructor begins to speak, take notes, bell rings again, leave class, etc.
INFLUENCES memory
Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; schemas; scripts

29. Eyewitness Testimony Not an exact replica of original events
What you recall is a construction built and rebuilt from various sources
Often fit memories into existing beliefs or schemas
Schema—mental representation of an object, scene or event
Example: schema of a countryside may include green grass, hills, farms, a barn, cows, etc.
Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; schemas; scripts

30. Factors that Influence Memory

31. Memory Construction: Children’s Recall

32. Children’s Testimony on Abuse
Research has shown children’s testimony to be unreliable
Children are very open to suggestions
As children mature their memories improve

33. Accurate Interviewing Methods
To promote accuracy with children’s testimony the interviewer should:
Phrase questions in a way the child can understand
Have no prior contact with the child
Use neutral language and do not lead or suggest answers

34. Forgetting Theories Encoding failure Interference theories
Motivated forgetting
Decay
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
key words: forgetting; encoding; decay theories; interference theories; retrieval cues

35. Forgetting as Encoding Failure

36. Encoding Failures or You never remembered it in the first place!
People fail to encode information because:
It is unimportant to them
It is not necessary to know the information
A decrease in the brain’s ability to encode

37. Forgetting as encoding failure
Info never encoded into LTM
Encoding X
Long-term
memory
Encoding failure
leads to forgetting
Short-term
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
key words: forgetting; encoding

38. Which is the real penny? Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
key words: forgetting; encoding

39. Answer
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
key words: forgetting; encoding

40. Encoding Failures
Even though you’ve seen thousands of pennies, you’ve probably never looked at one closely to encode specific features
key words: forgetting; encoding

41. Forgetting as Retrieval Failure: Interference

42. Interference Theories
“Memories interfering with memories”
Forgetting NOT caused by mere passage of time
Caused by one memory competing with or replacing another memory
key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories

43. Two Types of Interference
Retroactive
Interference
Proactive
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories;retroactive interference; proactive interference

44. Retroactive Interference
When a NEW memory interferes with remembering OLD information
Example: Learning a new language interferes with ability to remember old language
Study French
papier
livre
plume
école
Study Spanish
papel
libro
pluma
escuela
French 101
Mid-term
exam F-
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories; retroactive interference
Notes:
This is similar to an upcoming slide for proactive interference. The foreign language example can be used to demonstrate both retroactive and proactive interference, depending upon how you present it. Thus, examples of both are included. However, I generally only present only one of the two examples to avoid confusion for the students. For instance, I'll use the foreign language example for retroactive interference and the parking lot example for proactive interference.
retroactive interference

45. Proactive Interference
Opposite of retroactive interference
When an OLD memory interferes with remembering NEW information
Example: Memories of where you parked your car on campus the past week interferes with ability find car today ?
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories; proactive interference

46. Motivated Forgetting (I meant to forget it?)
Undesired memory is held back from awareness
Suppression—conscious forgetting
Repression—unconscious forgetting (Freudian)

47. Repression Part of Freud’s psychoanalysis
Process of moving anxiety-producing memories to the unconscious
Supposed means of protecting oneself from painful memories
Not well-supported by research; stressful incidents are actually more likely to be encoded

48. Decay Theories Memories fade away or decay gradually if unused
Time plays critical role
Ability to retrieve info declines with time after original encoding
If unused, normal brain metabolic processes erode memory trace
Average
percentage of information
retained 20
mins 1 hr 8
hrs 24 2
days 6 31
Interval between original learning of nonsense syllables and memory test
100%
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
key words: forgetting; retrieval; decay theories

49. Amnesia
Infantile – don’t accurately remember much of your childhood (2 & under) due to your hippocampus not being fully developed.
Anterograde – injury that prevents new memories from forming
Retrograde – injury that prevents memory from before the trauma (severe cases effect years of memory; most cases are of moments or hours before trauma)