1. Suffolk County Community College
WELCOME TO A&P I
Suffolk County Community College
Sayville Campus
Adriana Pinkas, PhD

2. Why do we want to know how our body works?
Anatomy and physiology (A&P) is about the biology of the human body
A&P approaches are complementary and never entirely separable
Anatomy is the study of human body structures and their relation to each other (Form)
Physiology is the study of human body function
General principle in biology - Form Follows Function - for a certain function to be done, a biological structure will adapt a certain form.
A&P is a foundation for advanced study in health care, exercise physiology, pathophysiology, and other health-care-related fields
Considers the historical development and a central concept of physiology - homeostasis

3. Anatomy - The Study of Form
Examining structure of the human body
Inspection - looking at the body appearance
Palpation - feeling a structure with the hands
Auscultation - listening to the natural
sounds made by the body
Percussion – tap the body, feel resistance
Figure 1.1

4. Anatomy - The Study of Form
Cadaver dissection
Cutting and separation of tissues to reveal their relationships
Comparative anatomy
Study of more than one species in order to examine structural similarities and differences, and analyze evolutionary trends

5. Anatomy - The Study of Form
Gross anatomy - Study of structures that can be seen with the naked eye
Exploratory surgery
Open body and take a look inside
Medical imaging
Viewing the inside of the body without surgery
Radiology—branch of medicine concerned with imaging
Microscopic anatomy
Histology - Examination of cells with microscope
Histopathology
Microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease
Cytology
Study of structure and function of cells
Ultrastructure
View molecular detail under electron microscope

6. Physiology - The Study of Function
Subdisciplines
Neurophysiology (physiology of nervous system)
Endocrinology (physiology of hormones)
Pathophysiology (mechanisms of disease)
Comparative physiology
Limitations on human experimentation
Study of different species to learn about bodily function
Animal surgery
Animal drug tests
Basis for the development of new drugs and medical procedures

7. Living in a Revolution Early pioneers were important
Established scientific way of thinking
Replaced superstition with natural laws
Cell Theory - All living things are composed of cells and come from preexisting cells
Modern biomedical science
Technological enhancements
Advances in medical imaging have enhanced our diagnostic ability and life-support strategies
Genetic Revolution
Human genome is finished
Gene therapy is being used to treat disease

8. Anatomical Variation No two humans are exactly alike
70% most common structure
30% anatomically variant
Variable number of organs
Missing muscles, extra vertebrae, renal arteries
Variation in organ locations
situs solitus - normal
situs inversus – organs reversed right to left
dextrocardia - right-left reversal of the heart
situs perversus – single organ occupies
an atypical position
Horseshoe kidney
Normal
Variations in branches of the aorta
Pelvic kidney

9. Physiological Variation
Sex, age, diet, weight, physical activity
Typical physiological values – heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature
reference man
22 years old, 154 lbs, light physical activity
consumes 2800 kcal/day
reference woman
same as man except 128 lbs and 2000 kcal/day
Failure to consider variation can lead to overmedication of elderly or medicating women on the basis of research done on men

10. Common characteristics of life
Organization
living things vs nonliving world -pattern that differs from environment, involves regulation of internal conditions within limit
Homeostasis
ability to maintain internal stability
Responsiveness and movement
ability to sense and react to stimuli; adaptation is a long term response
Cellular composition
all living tings are composed of cells
Metabolism
Anabolism, catabolism and excretion (energy )
Development
growth - increase in size/cell number
differentiation - specialization of cells to perform particular functions
Reproduction
produce copies of themselves (passing their genes to offspring)
Evolution
Mutations- change in DNA (genes)
Natural selection – favor of transmission of some genes more than others

11. Human structure - hierarchy of complexity
Organism
a single, complete individual
Organ System
human body made of 11 organ systems
Organ
structure composed of two or more tissue types that work together to carry out a particular function
Tissue –
a mass of similar cells and cell products that form discrete region of an organ and performs a specific function
Cells
the smallest units of an organism that carry out all the basic functions of life
Cytology – the study of cells and organelles
Organelles
microscopic structures in a cell that carry out its individual functions
Molecules
make up organelles and other cellular components
macromolecules – proteins, carbohydrates, fats, DNA
Atoms –
the smallest particles with unique chemical identities
The pattern of organization at the lower levels determines both the characteristics and functions at the higher levels

12. Homeostasis
Homeostasis – the body’s ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions
keeping within set limits
The internal environment of the body is in a dynamic state of equilibrium
Auto regulation (intrinsic) - when a cell, organ, or organ system automatically adjusts itself in response to a change in the environment
Extrinsic regulation – results from activity of nervous system and hormones (chemical messages) of endocrine system
Loss of homeostatic control causes illness or death

13. Negative Feedback Loop
Body senses a change and activates mechanisms to reverse it - dynamic equilibrium
Because feedback mechanisms alter the original changes that triggered them (temperature, for example), they are called feedback loops

14. Negative Feedback Example: Brain senses change in blood temperature
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Sweating
37.5 oC
(99.5 oF)
Vasodilation
Core body temperature
37.0 oC
(98.6 oF)
Set point
36.5 oC
(97.7 oF)
Vasoconstriction
Figure 1.10
Time
text
Shivering
Example: Brain senses change in blood temperature
If too warm, vessels dilate (vasodilation) in the skin and sweating begins (heat-losing mechanism)
If too cold, vessels in the skin constrict (vasoconstriction) and shivering begins (heat-gaining mechanism)

15. Homeostasis and Negative Feedback Postural Change in Blood Pressure
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Person rises
from bed
Blood pressure rises
to normal; homeostasis
is restored
Blood drains from
upper body, creating
homeostatic imbalance
Cardiac center
accelerates heartbeat
Baroreceptors above
heart respond to drop
in blood pressure
Figure 1.11
Baroreceptors send signals
to cardiac center of brainstem

16. Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
Receptor - senses change in the body (e.g., stretch receptors that monitor blood pressure)
Integrating (control) center - control center that processes the sensory information, “makes a decision,” and directs the response (e.g., cardiac center of the brain)
Effector - carries out the final corrective action to restore homeostasis (e.g., cell or organ)
Added some examples

17. Positive Feedback and Rapid Change
Self-amplifying cycle
Leads to greater change in the same direction
Feedback loop is repeated - change produces more change
Normal way of producing rapid changes
Occurs with childbirth, blood clotting, protein digestion, fever, and generation of nerve signals
Added during birth info.

18. Positive Feedback Loops
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 3
Brain stimulates
pituitary gland to
secrete oxytocin 4
Oxytocin stimulates uterine
contractions and pushes
fetus toward cervix 2
Nerve impulses
from cervix
transmitted
to brain
Photo is too big, can be added to previous slide 1
Head of fetus
pushes against cervix
1-18

19. Positive Feedback and Rapid Change
A Fever triggered by infection is beneficial
Metabolic rate increases
Body produces heat even faster
Body temperature continues to rise
Further increasing metabolic rate
Cycle continues to reinforce itself > 40°C (104°F)
It may create dangerous positive feedback loop
Becomes fatal at 45°C (113°F)

20. Review of Major Themes Unity of Form and Function Cell Theory
Form and function complement each other; physiology cannot be divorced from anatomy
Cell Theory
All structure and function result from the activity of cells
Homeostasis
The purpose of most normal physiology is to maintain stable conditions within the body
Evolution
The human body is a product of evolution
Hierarchy of Structure
Human structure can be viewed as a series of levels of complexity

21. © U.H.B. Trust/Tony Stone Images/Getty Imagese
Medical Imaging
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Radiography (X- rays)
William Roentgen’s discovery in 1885
Penetrate tissues to darken photographic film beneath the body
Dense tissue appears white
Over half of all medical imaging
Until 1960s, it was the only method widely available
(a) X-ray (radiograph)
© U.H.B. Trust/Tony Stone Images/Getty Imagese
Figure 1.13a

22. Custom Medical Stock Photos, Inc.
Medical Imaging
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Radiopaque substances
Injected or swallowed
Fills hollow structures
Blood vessels
Intestinal tract
Figure 1.13b
(b Cerebral angiogram
Custom Medical Stock Photos, Inc.

23. Medical Imaging Computed tomography (CT scan)
Formerly called a CAT scan
Low-intensity X-rays and computer analysis
Slice-type image
Increased sharpness of image
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Figure 1.13c
(c) Computed tomographic (CT) scan
© CNR/Phototake

24. Medical Imaging—Nuclear Medicine
Positron emission tomography (PET) scan
Assesses metabolic state of tissue
Distinguished tissues most active at a given moment
Mechanics—inject radioactively labeled glucose
Positrons and electrons collide
Gamma rays given off
Detected by sensor
Analyzed by computer
Image color shows tissues using the most glucose at that moment
Damaged tissues appear dark
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
(d) Positron emission tomographic
(PET) scan
Tony Stone Images/Getty Images
Figure 1.13d

25. © Monte S. Buchsbaum, Mt. Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY
Medical Imaging
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Slice-type image
Superior quality to CT scan
Best for soft tissue
Mechanics
Alignment and realignment of hydrogen atoms with magnetic field and radio waves
Varying levels of energy given off used by computer to produce an image
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
(e) Magnetic resonance image (MRI)
© Monte S. Buchsbaum, Mt. Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY
Figure 1.13e

26. Medical Imaging Sonography Second oldest and second most widely used
Mechanics
High-frequency sound waves echo back from internal organs
Avoids harmful X-rays
Obstetrics
Image not very sharp
Figure 1.14

27. Expected Learning Outcomes
The Scope of Anatomy and Physiology
Define anatomy and physiology and relate them to each other.
Describe several ways of studying human anatomy.
Define a few subdisciplines of human physiology.
Human Structure
List the levels of human structure from the most complex to the simplest.
Discuss the clinical significance of anatomical variation among humans.
Human Function
State the characteristics that distinguish living organisms from nonliving objects.
Explain the importance of defining a reference man and woman.
Define homeostasis and explain why this concept is central to physiology.
Define negative feedback, give an example of it, and explain its importance to homeostasis.
Define positive feedback and give examples of its beneficial and harmful effects.