1. 1 Biodiversity

2. 2 Outline Biodiversity and the Species Concept  Varied Definitions Benefits of Biodiversity Threats to Biodiversity  Natural and Human Caused Reductions Endangered Species Management  ESA  CITES Captive Breeding

3. 3 BIODIVERSITY AND THE SPECIES CONCEPT What is Biodiversity ?  Genetic Diversity - Measures variety of different versions of same genes.  Species Diversity - Measures number of different kinds of organisms within a community.  Ecological Diversity - Measures richness and complexity of a community.

4. 4 What is Biodiversity ? Species Diversity  Species Richness - Total number of species in a community.  Species Evenness - Relative abundance of individuals within each species.

5. 5 What Are Species ? Species Definition  Reproductive Isolation  Genetic Species Concept - DNA sequencing  Evolutionary Species Concept Molecular Techniques

6. 6 How Many Species Are There ? Currently 1.5 million species identified. Estimates range between 3-50 million.  May be 30 million insect species.  Invertebrates make up 70% of all known species, and probably most of yet to be discovered species. Tropical rainforests and coral reefs are biodiversity hotspots.  NA and Europe only contain 10-15%.

7. 7 Biodiversity Hotspots

8. 8 BENEFITS OF BIODIVERSITY Food  As many as 80,000 edible wild plant species could be utilized by humans. Drugs and Medicines  More than half of all prescriptions contain some natural product.  Pharmaceutical companies actively prospect tropical countries for products.

9. 9 Benefits of Biodiversity Ecological Benefits  Soil formation, waste disposal, air and water purification, nutrient cycling, solar energy absorption, and biogeochemical and hydrological cycles all depend on biodiversity. - Can a system function without all its integral parts ?

10. 10 Benefits of Biodiversity Aesthetic and Cultural Benefits  Cultural diversity inextricably linked to biodiversity.  USFWS estimates Americans spend $104 billion annually on wildlife-related recreation.  Ecotourism can be an important form of sustainable economic development.  Existence (intrinsic) value.

11. 11 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY Extinction - Elimination of a species.  Natural Causes - In undisturbed ecosystems, background rate appears to be one species per decade.  In this century, human impacts have accelerated that rate, causing perhaps hundreds to thousands of extinctions annually.

12. 12 Natural Causes of Extinction Fossil record suggests more than 99% of all species ever in existence are now extinct.  Most went extinct before humans arrived. - End of Cretaceous - Dinosaurs and 50% of existing genera disappeared. - Permian period - 95% of marine species and nearly half of all plant and animal families died out.

13. 13 Human-Caused Reductions in Biodiversity Habitat Destruction  Biggest reason for current increase in extinction is habitat loss. - Habitat fragmentation divides populations into isolated groups vulnerable to catastrophic events.  Northern Spotted Owl

14. 14 Habitat Fragmentation

15. 15 Human-Caused Reductions in Biodiversity Invasive Species  Invasive (exotic) organisms thrive in new territory where they are free of usual predators, diseases, or resource limitations that limited them in original habitat. - Over past 300 years, approximately 50,000 non-native species have become established in the U.S..  At least 4,500 are free-living.  15% cause environmental damage.

16. 16 Human-Caused Reductions in Biodiversity Invasive Species  Eurasian milfoil  European green crab  Kudzu vine  Purple loosestrife  Zebra muscles Island ecosystems are susceptible

17. 17 Invasive Species

18. 18 Human-Caused Reductions in Biodiversity Pollution  Pesticides  Lead Population  Human population growth - Resource Use Overharvesting  American Passenger Pigeon  Whales

19. 19 Human-Caused Reductions in Biodiversity Commercial Products and Live Specimens  Wildlife smuggling is very profitable. - Leopard fur / Rhinoceros horns  U.S. Annual pet trade in wild species: - 2 million reptiles - 1 million amphibians and mammals - 500,000 birds - 128,000,000 tropical fish  Cyanide released above coral reefs.

20. 20 Human-Caused Reductions in Biodiversity

21. 21 ENDANGERED SPECIES MANAGEMENT Hunting and Fishing Laws  By 1890’s, most states had enacted some hunting and fishing laws. - General idea was pragmatic, not aesthetic or moral preservation. - In general, regulations have been extremely successful.

22. 22 Endangered Species Act Established in 1973.  Endangered are those considered in imminent danger of extinction.  Threatened are those likely to become endangered, at least locally, in the near future. - Vulnerable are those that are naturally rare or have been locally depleted to a level that puts them at risk.

23. 23 Endangered Species Act ESA regulates a wide range of activities involving endangered species:  Taking (harassing, harming, pursuing, hunting, shooting, killing, capturing, or collecting) either accidentally, or on purpose.  Selling  Importing into or Exporting out of the U.S.  Possessing  Transporting or Shipping

24. 24 Endangered Species Act Currently, U.S. has 1,300 species on its Endangered and Threatened lists, and about 250 candidate species waiting for consideration.  Number reflects more about human interests than actual status. - Invertebrates make up 75% of all species, but only 9% of T/E list.  Listing process is extremely slow.

25. 25 Recovery Plans Once a species is listed, USFWS is required to propose a recovery plan detailing the rebuilding of the species to sustainable levels.  Total cost of all current plans = $5 billion. - Some have been very successful. Opponents have continually tried to require economic costs and benefits be incorporated into planning.

26. 26 Private Land and Critical Habitat Eighty percent of habitat for more than half of all listed species is on non-public property.  Supreme Court has ruled destroying habitat equates to taking. - USFWS has been negotiating Habitat Conservation Plans (HCP) with private landowners.  Landowners allowed to harvest resources as long as species benefit.

27. 27 Reauthorizing ESA ESA officially expired in 1992.  Proposals for new ESA generally fall into two general categories: - Versions that encourage ecosystem and habitat protection rather than individual species. - Safe harbor policies that allow exceptions to critical habitat designations.  (Economic Considerations)

28. 28 Habitat Protection Latest management strategy is preservation of ecosystems supporting maximum biological diversity rather than species-by- species approach.  Gap Analysis - Conservationists and wildlife managers look for unprotected landscapes that are rich in species. - Broad-scale, holistic approach.

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30. 30 International Wildlife Treaties Convention on International Trade In Endangered Species (CITES) - 1975.  Regulated trade in living specimens and products derived from listed species.

31. 31 CAPTIVE BREEDING Breeding programs in zoos and botanical gardens are one method of saving threatened species.  Repositories of genetic diversity. - Most mammals in NA zoos are now produced from captive-breeding programs.  Some zoos now participating in reintroduction programs.

32. 32 Captive Breeding Zoos have limited space for captive breeding.  How many can / should we save ?  Ultimate problem is that natural habitat may disappear while we are conserving the species itself. Another alternative is to attempt to save species in the wild.  Provide funding for protection in native habitats.

33. 33 Summary Biodiversity and the Species Concept  Varied Definitions Benefits of Biodiversity Threats to Biodiversity  Natural and Human Caused Reductions Endangered Species Management  ESA  CITES Captive Breeding

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