1. THEORY AND OTHER ELEMENTS OF RESEARCH BUSN 364 – Week 4 Özge Can

2. A research example: Neuman, Chapter 3 (pg.55)  Question: Why do people smoke cigarettes?  Theory of social resources:  More educated, high income people tend to smoke less  However, smoking is more than a health issue...  Theory of cultural taste:  Pampel (2006): Is taste in music related to smoking because of the different life styles?  Finding: Jazz lovers in general are more likely to smoke than nonjazz lovers of the same social class. 8

3. Theory...  Helps us to understand the complexities of social life  Explains why people do what they do  Clarifies and systematize thinking, extends understanding, deepends discussions and enriches analysis  Plays critical role in advancing knowledge and organizing the way we conduct research

4. Theory...  Has multiple meanings in daily life so don’t confuse!  Theory is NOT:  Our explanations in daily life  General worldviews; the way of seeing, interpreting and understanding events  Criticisms based on a political or moral viewpoints; belief/value-based critiques  Philosophical commentaries

5. What is THEORY?  A system of interconnected ideas that condenses and organizes the knowledge about the world and explains how it works  Classical social theorists => e.g. Durkheim, Marx, Smith, Mills, Weber  More recent theorists => e.g. Bourdieu, Giddens, Goffman, Foucault, Krugman  Although they generate many new ideas and theories, we all can use theory!

6. What is THEORY?  A good research involves theory. If theory remains unclear, incomplete or poorly formulated => it is a weak research  Theories are not static: we constantly modify older theories and develop new ones  Validity = Accuracy of a theory in explaining/ predicting things  Parsimony = the idea that simple is better; everything else being equal, a theory that explains more with less complexity is better

7. “There is nothing so practical as a good theory.” - Kurt Lewin

8. Basis of DifferenceIdeologyTheory Certainty of asnwers Absolute, certain asnwers with no questions Tentative conditional answers that are incomplete and open ended Type of knowledge Closed, fixed belief systemsOpen, expanding Type of assumptions Based on faith, moral belief or social position Based on open, informed debate and rational discussions Use of normative claims Descriptions, explainations and normative claims all merged Seperation of descriptions, and explanations from normative claims Empirical evidence Selective use, avoiding direct tests; resistance or denial of contrary evidence Considering all evidence, seeking repeated tests, change with new evidence Logical consistency Contradictions and logical fallacies Highest level of consistency; avoiding logical fallacies Summary Table: Theory versus Ideology

9. The Parts of Theory  Assumptions  An un-tested starting point in a theory that is necessary in order to build a theoretical explanation  Concepts  An idea that is thought, carefully defined and made explicit in a theory that we can express as a word or symbol  Relationships  Whether the concepts are connected to one another and if so, how

10. Concepts  They are everywhere, we use them all the time  Concepts have two parts: a symbol (a word, term, a written character) and a definition.  We find them easy to use but difficult to define or describe  For example: “Height”  A characteristics of a physical object indicating the distance from top to bottom.  The word “height” refers to an abstract idea. We associate a sound and a written symbol to this idea.

11. Relationships  Proposition  A theoretical statement about the relatipnship between two or more concepts  Hypothesis  An empirically testable version of a theoretical proposition that is yet to be tested or verified with empirical evidence  It is most used in deductive theorizing  Unit of analysis => In research, we must fit the concepts to a specific type of unit of social life: individual people, groups, organizations, movements, exchanges, institutions, countries etc.

12. Abstract and Empirical Levels Treatment to employees Employee loyalty Social security & other benefits Annual turnover Abstract level Empirical level Proposition Hypothesis

13. Some Important Aspects of Theory  Direction of theorizing  Either deductive or inductive  Level of analysis  Micro, macro or meso  Forms of explanation  Causal, structural, interpretative  Range of a theory  Empirical generalization, a middle-range theory, a framewoek

14. Direction of Theorizing in Research  Deductive Approach: Start with abstract concepts and propositions then evaluate them against empirical evidence  We go from ideas, theory or a mental picture toward observable empirical evidence  Inductive Approach: Start with specific observations of the empirical world and then generalize from this evidence to build toward abstract ideas  We go from empirical observations toward theoretical concepts and propositions

16. Causal Explanation  A theoretical explanation about why events occur or how things work in terms of a cause-effect relationship among concepts/variables  Example: “Higher poverty causes crime rates to increase”  Three requirements of causality: 1. Temporal order 2. Empirical association 3. Elimination of alternative explanations

17. Causal Explanation 1) Temporal order:  The cause must come earlier in time than an effect  Difficult in cross-sectional research: Like a chicken-and-egg problem  To resolve it researcher needs to bring in other information or a research design to test for temporal order  Simple causal relations are unidirectional (single direction). More complex relationships: mutual or simultaneous causation

18. Causal Explanation 2) Association:  Two phenomena occur together in a patterned way or appear to act together.  When one event happens or is present, the other one is likely to happen or be present as well.  It is a necessary but not a sufficient condition of causality:  An association exists between the day of the week and the exam grades.

19. Causal Explanation 3) Eliminating Alternatives:  We must show that the effect is due to the causal variable, not to something else.  In experiments, we build controls into the study design  In non-experimental research, we identify possible alternative causes and measure them. Once we measure them, we can use statistical techniques to control them

20. Causal Explanation  A positive relationship means that a higher value on the cause goes with a higher value on the effect or outcome  Example: As the number of years of a person’s schooling increases, the longer the person’s life expectancy is.  A negative relationship means that a higher value on the cause goes with a lower value on the effect or outcome  Example: As the number of years of a person’s schooling increases, his/her prejudice decreses.

21. Positive relationship: Positive and negative relationship: Positive path relationship: Examples of Causal Relationships

22. Role of Theory in Research Process:  Close interaction between theory and research findings:  Helps to make connections and see the broader significance of research findings: To see the forest instead of just a single tree  We refuse, extend or modify a theory based on empirical results of a research.  More central to basic-explanatory research; more indirect impact in applied-descriptive research

23. Social Theory Examples:

24. The Philosophy of Science  We can define science in two ways: 1) What practicing scientists actually do? 2) What philosophers have claimed as the core meaning of science? What makes social science scientific?  There is no single answer; there is no one way to do science => There are multiple alternative approaches

25.  Ontology:  The issue of what exists; the fundamental nature of being. Asks the question: “what reality is?”  Two basic positions:  Realist => see the world as being “out there”. The world exists independent of humans and their interpretations of it.  Nominalist (subjectivist) => humans never directly experience reality “out there”. Our experience is always occuring through the lenses of interpretations and subjectivity. The Philosophy of Science

26.  The positions are on a continuum:

27.  Epistemology:  The issue of how we know the world around us; the knowledge of the world  “How we know what we know or what are the most valid ways to reach truth”  Realist position: we can produce knowledge and learn about reality by making careful observations of it.  Nominalist position: making observations will not lead to knowledge about reality because interpretations and subjective views influence all observations The Philosophy of Science

28. Three Major Approaches :  Positivist social science  Emphasizes discovering causal laws, careful empirical observations and value-free/ objective research  Interpretive social science  Emphasizes meaningful social action, socially constructed meaning and value relativism  Critical social science  Emphasized competing surface-level distortions, multiple levels of reality and value-based activism for human empowerment

29. Positivist Social Science:  The purpose of science is to discover laws  The reality is empirically evident  Humans are rational thinking  View on human agency: deterministic  Scientific knowledge is different from and superior to all other knowledge  Explanations are causal and advance by deductive reasoning  Explanations are verified using replication by other researchers  Social science should be value-free and objective

30. Interpretive Social Science:  The purpose of science is to understand social meaning in context  The reality is socially created  Humans interact and create shared meaning  View on human agency: voluntaristic/ autonomy  Scientific knowledge is no better than other knowledge forms  Explanations are in-depth descriptions and advance by inductive reasoning  Scientific evidence is contingent and context specific  Social science should be relativistic regarding social positions

31. Critical Social Science :  The purpose of science is to reveal what is hidden  The reality has multiple layers  Social life is relational  View on human agency: bounded autonomy  Scientific knowledge is imperfect but can fight false consciousness  Explanations are based on critiques and verified through praxis  Social science contains a moral-political dimension there is unequality in terms of human freedom and empowerment

32. Common Features of the Three Approaches:  All are empirical.  All are systematic.  All are theoretical.  All are public.  All research studies are explicit and shared; transparent  All are self-reflective.  All are open-end processes.  All see research as constantly moving, evolving, changing and asking new questions