1. Research Methods for Counselors COUN 597 University of Saint Joseph Class # 1 Copyright © 2015 by R. Halstead. All rights reserved.

2. Counseling Research: The Big Picture Where have we been and where are we going? Where have we been? During last semester we largely addressed the elements of how counselors go about using psychological measures to appraise individuals and how to describe distributions of data.

3. Counseling Research: The Big Picture Where are we going? This semester we will address the methods used to collect data, analyzing that data, and use results of our analysis for clinical and programmatic decision making. We engage in this process to aid in the acquisition and application of new knowledge.

4. Human Ways of Knowing zPersonal Knowing/Self-Discovery zKnowledge Passed Down Through Tradition zAuthoritative Experts

5. Human Ways of Knowing Personal/Self-Discovery - Constantly in the process of making observations, constructing meaning, and drawing conclusions - Purpose of this process is to establish stability and predictability in our lives - Important to distinguish between being able to predict something will happen and truly understanding why it happens

6. Human Ways of Knowing Knowledge Passed Down Through Tradition - Historical Knowledge - Many things have been learned prior to our entering the world and that which is known can be passed to us through family, school, and culture - Positive - Saves time in that you do not have to spend time rediscovering that which is already known - Negative - Knowledge that comes from tradition may not be questioned or not thought of as being important to examine and engage in further inquiry.

7. Human Ways of Knowing Authority - We live in a technocracy where experts have power - Experts have knowledge and we look to those experts for the information and services we need - Positive - Similar to those that pass knowledge via tradition, experts have useful information from which we can all benefit - Negative - Knowledge that comes form experts may not be questioned or garner further inquiry and sometimes experts offer opinions about that which they do not actually have a specified expertise.

8. Research - A Disciplined form of Personal Discovery George Kelly’s Constructs Theory - A Theory of Personality - All individuals are scientists. - Through observation they collect data - They analyze the data - They draw conclusions Then Kelly made the point at there are really good scientists and some really bad scientists

9. Elements that Lead to Bad Science Inaccurate Observations - Misperceptions and Missed observations - Overgeneralization - Selective Observation - Illogical Reasoning - Accepting what sounds plausible as fact

10. Research Seeks Scientific Truth and does NOT seek to PROVE - Assumptions - The world has order - That which we observe has been caused - Theory over philosophy -Analyzing data systematically allows us to approach truth - Quantitative Analysis - Qualitative Analysis

11. The Positivist (Modernist)View of Research Science is a way to learn a truth about some variable of interest Science is viewed as deterministic – about the variable not about the researcher not about the researcher Science is mechanistic and employs methods Science only deals with what we can observe and measure The best way to learn the truth is to experiment From this perspective science is objective

12. A Post-positivist (Post-Modernist) View of Research Objective truth does not exist because what one observes is tied to subjective perceptions and a point of reference The only way one can know is through the use of multiple perspectives and triangulation in a naturalistic setting Observation is theory laden and as such influenced by theory and results in us only seeing what we look to see and results in us only seeing what we look to see Suggests that the method should not be reductionistic The best way to learn the truth is to explore the whole instead of just individual parts From this perspective science is not objective

13. Critical Realism This position holds that there’s a reality and that we should strive toward as complete an understanding as possible. At the same time, we need to be critical of our ability to ever get it perfectly right. In science and research one is never able to prove a particular truth – rather the best that can be done is to learn more and more about a particular phenomenon

14. Critical Thinking Critical Thinking is Essential to Good Research “Everyday Reasoning” can be flawed Provincialism - Personal World View Hasty Conclusions Questionable Cause - Does X really cause Y? Suppressed or Selective Evidence

15. Paradigms, Theory, and Research A paradigm is a mental model or a belief system use to conceptualize how something works in the world. A counseling theories embody a paradigm because they are conceptualized set of ideas believed to be true about how people change.

16. Paradigms, Theory, and Research - Continued It is important to test aspects of the theories we work from and the assumptions from which theories are built so we can be more confident that we are providing the most effective interventions to clients who we serve.

17. The Nature and Application of Causation One central idea is that a researcher often trys to deal with is what causes that which one is observing. Cause > Effect - A client has a problem (effect) - we look for the cause. - A counselor employs and intervention (cause) we observe to see if there is change (effect).

18. The Nature of Causation – Understanding the concept of variables What is a Variable? - A variable is any attribute that can be clearly defined (Examples: Hope, Depression, Anxiety, Anger, etc.) and measured. - One other thing about variables is that they can take on different values or vary (Examples: Mild Depression vs. Intense Anxiety).

19. The Nature of Causation - Continued Criteria for Causality 1. Variable A ( the cause) must precede Variable B (the effect). 2. Var A must be empirically correlated with Var B (gunpowder explodes Var A - you hear “Bang” Var B). 3. The relationship between Var A and Var B can not be explained by a third Var that causes Var A and Var B (Ice Cream sales and Sun Screen sales).

20. Research Design Purposes of Research Exploration - Develop a beginning familiarity with the topic or issue. Description - Accurately describe situations and/or events. Explanation/Evaluation - Arrive at a plausible explanation of an observed phenomenon that can be defended with objective data.

21. Research Design - Continued Units of Analysis - Research Target So who or what are you going to focus your research observations and measurement? - Individuals - Groups - Intervention Program Understanding the unit of analysis will avoid over generalizing findings.

22. Research Design - Continued The Time Dimension - Cross-Sectional Studies - Longitudinal Studies

23. Research Design - Continued How to Design a Research Project - Conceptualizing questions of interest - Choice of Research Method - Operationalization - Population and Sampling - Observation - Data Entry - Analysis - Application

24. So Why Do We Have to Take Research? z“Ya know Rick, people go into counseling because they are people people and not numbers people - so I don’t know why I am spending time working with numbers when I want to work with people.” Student

25. So Why Do We Have to Take Research? Answer: ACA Code of Ethics - A.1.a You have to understand research because if you are really concerned about people, you will want to be able to provide them with the best possible service. This means you must engage in: a)empirically based practice b)consume of research (read and evaluate journal articles

26. Evidence Based Practice Makes use of research findings to understand client problems and effective interventions Specify problems, interventions, and outcomes that are observable and measurable Systematically collect data to monitor interventions and determine their effectiveness Draw conclusions from data analysis

27. Scientific Method Deductive - From the general to the specific 1. Begin with a general theory and derive one or more hypotheses (or research questions) 2. Identify specific-observable variables and clearly define them 3. Make observations (meaning Collect Data) 4. Analyze Data 5. Draw conclusions

28. Scientific Method - Continued Inductive - From specific instances to general principles - from facts to theories 1. Begin by collecting data on some topic of interest 2. Analysis the research data collected 3. Look for connections or themes that emerge from the data 4. Draw generalized conclusions or theories from findings

29. Different Questions Different Approaches A deductive approach seeks to answer questions related to testing where general concepts hold in specific situations. - For this reason we use quantitative data analysis Numerically testing hypotheses A inductive approach seeks to understand how specific elements might be useful in forming large principles. - For this reason we use qualitative data analysis - Building theory from observations

30. Different Situations Different Designs z Client change - N of One Case Study z Program effectiveness – Out Come Research z How Variable Relate – Correlation Study z Impact of Intervention – Action Research

31. Quantitative Data Analysis Means Understanding and Using Statistics zMean zMedian zMode zCentral Tendency zStandard Deviation zStandard Error zANOVA

32. Ethics in Research zWe must always be concerned about following the ethical guidelines. zEnsure safety of participants zFollowing proper procedures helps to enhance the quality of the research. zSection E. and Section G. of the ACA Code of Ethics zASCA Code of Ethics – Does not specifically address issues of research – see A.9.g