1. Vladimir Jurukovski PhD
WELCOME TO A&P I
Vladimir Jurukovski PhD
Associate Professor
Suffolk County Community College
Smithtown Science Building T-218
(631)

3. What if…..?

4. Introduction
Anatomy and physiology (A&P) is about human structure and function—the biology of the human body
We want to know how our body works!
A&P is a foundation for advanced study in health care, exercise physiology, pathophysiology, and other health-care-related fields
Considers the historical development and a central concept of physiology—homeostasis

5. The Scope of Anatomy and Physiology
Expected Learning Outcomes
Define anatomy and physiology and relate them to each other.
Describe several ways of studying human anatomy.
Define a few subdisciplines of human physiology.

6. Anatomy—The Study of Form
Examining structure of the human body
Inspection
Palpation
Auscultation
Percussion
Cadaver dissection
Cutting and separation of tissues to reveal their relationships
Comparative anatomy
Study of more than one species in order to examine structural similarities and differences, and analyze evolutionary trends
Figure 1.1

7. Cadaver Dissection

8. Anatomy—The Study of Form
Exploratory surgery
Open body and take a look inside
Medical imaging
Viewing the inside of the body without surgery
Radiology—branch of medicine concerned with imaging
Gross anatomy
Study of structures that can be seen with the naked eye
Cytology
Study of structure and function of cells
Histology (microscopic anatomy)
Examination of cells with microscope
Ultrastructure
View molecular detail under electron microscope
Histopathology
Microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease

9. Exploratory Surgery
Cytology
Histology
Medical Imaging
Gross Anatomy

10. Physiology—The Study of Function
Subdisciplines
Neurophysiology (physiology of nervous system)
Endocrinology (physiology of hormones)
Pathophysiology (mechanisms of disease)
Comparative physiology
Limitations on human experimentation
Study of different species to learn about bodily function
Animal surgery
Animal drug tests
Basis for the development of new drugs and medical procedures

11. Living in a Revolution Modern biomedical science Genetic Revolution
Technological enhancements
Advances in medical imaging have enhanced our diagnostic ability and life-support strategies
Genetic Revolution
Human genome is finished
Gene therapy is being used to treat disease
Early pioneers were important
Established scientific way of thinking
Replaced superstition with natural laws

12. Human Structure Expected Learning Outcomes
List the levels of human structure from the most complex to the simplest.
Discuss the clinical significance of anatomical variation among humans.

13. Hierarchy of Complexity
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Organism is composed of organ systems
Organ Systems composed of organs
Organs composed of tissues
Tissues composed of cells
Cells composed of organelles
Organelles composed of molecules
Molecules composed of atoms
Organism
Organ
Tissue
Organ system
Cell
Macromolecule
Organelle
Atom
Molecule

14. Hierarchy of Complexity
Organism – a single, complete individual
Organ System – human body made of 11 organ systems
Organ – structure composed of two or more tissue types that work together to carry out a particular function
Tissue – a mass of similar cells and cell products that form discrete region of an organ and performs a specific function
Cells – the smallest units of an organism that carry out all the basic functions of life
Cytology – the study of cells and organelles
Organelles – microscopic structures in a cell that carry out its individual functions
Molecules – make up organelles and other cellular components
macromolecules – proteins, carbohydrates, fats, DNA
Atoms – the smallest particles with unique chemical identities

15. Characteristics of Life
Organization
Cellular composition
Metabolism
anabolism, catabolism and excretion
Responsiveness and movement
Stimuli
Homeostasis
Development
differentiation and growth
Reproduction
Evolution
mutations

16. Anatomical Variation No two humans are exactly alike
70% most common structure
30% anatomically variant
Variable number of organs
Missing muscles, extra vertebrae, renal arteries
Variation in organ locations (situs solitus, situs inversus, dextrocardia, situs perversus)
Horseshoe kidney
Normal
Variations in branches of the aorta
Pelvic kidney

17. Physiological Variation
Sex, age, diet, weight, physical activity
Typical physiological values
reference man
22 years old, 154 lbs, light physical activity
consumes 2800 kcal/day
reference woman
same as man except 128 lbs and 2000 kcal/day

18. Homeostasis
Homeostasis – the body’s ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions
Claude Bernard ( )
constant internal conditions regardless of external conditions
internal body temperature ranges from 97 to 99 degrees despite variations in external temperature
Walter Cannon ( )
coined the term ‘Homeostasis’
state of the body fluctuates (dynamic equilibrium) within limited range around a set point
Negative feedback keeps variable close to the set point
Loss of homeostatic control causes illness or death

19. Negative Feedback Loop
Body senses a change and activates mechanisms to reverse it—dynamic equilibrium
Because feedback mechanisms alter the original changes that triggered them (temperature, for example), they are called feedback loops
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 1
Room temperature
fallsto66°F(19°C) 6
C10°
15°
20°
25°
Room cools down
F50°
60°
70°
80° 2
Thermost atactivates
furnace
Added second sentence
Figure notation 1.9a
C10°
15°
20°
25°
F50°
60°
70°
80°
Figure 1.9a 5
Thermostat shuts
off furnace 4
Room temperature
rises to 70°F (21°C) 3
Heat output
(a)

20. Negative Feedback
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 75
Furnace turned
off at 70 oF 70
Set point 68 oF
Room temperature (oF) 65
Furnace turned
on at 66 oF
Added textbox for figure text
Bolded “set point” 60
Time
Figure 1.9b
(b)
Example: Room temperature does not stay at set point of 68°F—it only averages 68°F

21. Negative Feedback Example: Brain senses change in blood temperature
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Sweating
37.5 oC
(99.5 oF)
Vasodilation
Core body temperature
37.0 oC
(98.6 oF)
Set point
36.5 oC
(97.7 oF)
Vasoconstriction
Figure 1.10
Time
text
Shivering
Example: Brain senses change in blood temperature
If too warm, vessels dilate (vasodilation) in the skin and sweating begins (heat-losing mechanism)
If too cold, vessels in the skin constrict (vasoconstriction) and shivering begins (heat-gaining mechanism)

22. Homeostatis and Negative Feedback
Sitting up in bed causes a drop in blood pressure in the head and upper torso region (local imbalance in homeostasis); detected by baroreceptors
Baroreceptors (sensory nerve endings) in the arteries near the heart alert the cardiac center in the brainstem. They transmit to the cardiac center
Cardiac center sends nerve signals that increase the heart rate and return the blood pressure to normal; regulates heart rate
Failure of this to feedback loop may produce dizziness in the elderly

23. Postural Change in Blood Pressure
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Person rises
from bed
Blood pressure rises
to normal; homeostasis
is restored
Blood drains from
upper body, creating
homeostatic imbalance
Cardiac center
accelerates heartbeat
Baroreceptors above
heart respond to drop
in blood pressure
Figure 1.11
Baroreceptors send signals
to cardiac center of brainstem

24. Homeostasis and Negative Feedback
Receptor—senses change in the body (e.g., stretch receptors that monitor blood pressure)
Integrating (control) center—control center that processes the sensory information, “makes a decision,” and directs the response (e.g., cardiac center of the brain)
Effector—carries out the final corrective action to restore homeostasis (e.g., cell or organ)
Added some examples

25. Positive Feedback and Rapid Change
Self-amplifying cycle
Leads to greater change in the same direction
Feedback loop is repeated—change produces more change
Normal way of producing rapid changes
Occurs with childbirth, blood clotting, protein digestion, fever, and generation of nerve signals
Added during birth info.

26. Positive Feedback and Rapid Change
During birth, the head of the fetus pushes against the cervix and stimulates its nerve endings
Hormone oxytocin is secreted from the pituitary gland
Oxytocin travels through the bloodstream to the uterus stimulating it to contract
This action pushes the fetus downward toward cervix, thus stimulating the cervix more, causing the positive feedback loop to be repeated
Added during birth info.

27. Positive Feedback Loops
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 3
Brain stimulates
pituitary gland to
secrete oxytocin 4
Oxytocin stimulates uterine
contractions and pushes
fetus toward cervix 2
Nerve impulses
from cervix
transmitted
to brain
Photo is too big, can be added to previous slide 1
Head of fetus
pushes against cervix
1-27

28. Positive Feedback and Rapid Change
Fever > 104°F
Metabolic rate increases
Body produces heat even faster
Body temperature continues to rise
Further increasing metabolic rate
Cycle continues to reinforce itself
Becomes fatal at 113°F

29. Review of Major Themes Cell Theory Homeostasis Evolution
All structure and function result from the activity of cells
Homeostasis
The purpose of most normal physiology is to maintain stable conditions within the body
Evolution
The human body is a product of evolution
Hierarchy of Structure
Human structure can be viewed as a series of levels of complexity
Unity of Form and Function
Form and function complement each other; physiology cannot be divorced from anatomy

30. © U.H.B. Trust/Tony Stone Images/Getty Imagese
Medical Imaging
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Radiography (X-rays)
William Roentgen’s discovery in 1885
Penetrate tissues to darken photographic film beneath the body
Dense tissue appears white
Over half of all medical imaging
Until 1960s, it was the only method widely available
(a) X-ray (radiograph)
© U.H.B. Trust/Tony Stone Images/Getty Imagese
Figure 1.13a

31. Custom Medical Stock Photos, Inc.
Medical Imaging
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Radiopaque substances
Injected or swallowed
Fills hollow structures
Blood vessels
Intestinal tract
Figure 1.13b
(b Cerebral angiogram
Custom Medical Stock Photos, Inc.

32. Medical Imaging Computed tomography (CT scan)
Formerly called a CAT scan
Low-intensity X-rays and computer analysis
Slice-type image
Increased sharpness of image
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Figure 1.13c
(c) Computed tomographic (CT) scan
© CNR/Phototake

33. Medical Imaging—Nuclear Medicine
Positron emission tomography (PET) scan
Assesses metabolic state of tissue
Distinguished tissues most active at a given moment
Mechanics—inject radioactively labeled glucose
Positrons and electrons collide
Gamma rays given off
Detected by sensor
Analyzed by computer
Image color shows tissues using the most glucose at that moment
Damaged tissues appear dark
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
(d) Positron emission tomographic
(PET) scan
Tony Stone Images/Getty Images
Figure 1.13d

34. © Monte S. Buchsbaum, Mt. Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY
Medical Imaging
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Slice-type image
Superior quality to CT scan
Best for soft tissue
Mechanics
Alignment and realignment of hydrogen atoms with magnetic field and radio waves
Varying levels of energy given off used by computer to produce an image
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
(e) Magnetic resonance image (MRI)
© Monte S. Buchsbaum, Mt. Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY
Figure 1.13e

35. Medical Imaging Sonography Second oldest and second most widely used
Mechanics
High-frequency sound waves echo back from internal organs
Avoids harmful X-rays
Obstetrics
Image not very sharp
Figure 1.14