The Use of Theory Qualitative and Quantitative Methods

The Use of Theory Qualitative and Quantitative Methods
This module is on the use of theory in qualitative and quantitative methods.

Qualitative and Quantitative Methods
The use of a theory varies between qualitative and quantitative methods Quantitative methods: Theories are presented then tested to explain, predict, or establish causal relations between variables Qualitative methods: Theories are presented to serve as a “lens” which then guides what is looked at and how questions are developed. Theories can also be generated as seen in grounded theory approaches The use of a theory varies between qualitative and quantitative methods Quantitative methods: Theories are presented then tested to explain, predict, or establish causal relations between variables. Research using the quantitative method can be experimental, quasi experimental, or non experimental. Qualitative methods: Theories are presented to serve as a “lens” which then guides what is looked at and how questions are developed. Theories can also be generated as seen in grounded theory approaches. Research using the qualitative method is considered non experimental. The method is exploratory in nature.

Theory and the Quantitative Method

Definition of a Theory Quantitative Theory Theoretical Perspective
Interrelated set of constructs formed into propositions that specify the relationships among variables Describes how and why variables are related Variables = Constructs Sometimes referred to as: Theoretical Perspective Theoretical Framework Conceptual Framework – A visual framework of a theoretical perspective/framework Theory Kerlinger defined a theory as a set of interrelated constructs, definitions, and propositions that present a systematic view of a phenomena by specifying relations among variables with the purpose to of explaining a natural phenomena. Describes how and why variables are related Variables is synonymous with the term Constructs The application of a theory is sometimes referred to as: Theoretical Perspective Theoretical Framework Conceptual Framework – A visual framework of a theoretical perspective/framework Often times these terms are used interchangeably or sometimes not used at all in research within the quantitative method.

Independent Variables
Quantitative Independent Variables Variables in Quantitative Methods Independent Variables that are inferred to cause outcomes Factor, Program, Treatment (variable), Predictor (variable), Intervention Dependent The outcome that depends on the independent variable Outcome (variable), criterion Intervening or mediating Variables that stand between the independent and dependent variables Moderating New variables that measure the joint impact of two variables Confounding Variables that could also affect the dependent variables, but cannot or will not be measured. Confounding variables can be moderating or intervening variables Understanding the different types of variables is important when establishing the type of theory to be used in a study. Independent Variables that are inferred to cause outcomes or precede an outcome IVs are also referred to as a Factor or Predictor (variable). The program, treatment variable or Intervention is also the IV Dependent The outcome that depends on the independent variable or proceeds the IV The DV is also known the Outcome (variable) or criterion variable Intervening or mediating Variables that stand between the independent and dependent variables Moderating New variables that measure the joint impact of two variables Confounding Variables that could also affect the dependent variables along with the identified IV, but cannot or will not be measured. Confounding variables can be moderating or intervening variables

Dependent Variables Variables in Quantitative Methods Quantitative
Independent Variables that are inferred to cause outcomes Factor, Program, Treatment (variable), Predictor (variable), Intervention Dependent The outcome that depends on the independent variable Outcome (variable), criterion Intervening or mediating Variables that stand between the independent and dependent variables Moderating New variables that measure the joint impact of two variables Confounding Variables that could also affect the dependent variables, but cannot or will not be measured. Confounding variables can be moderating or intervening variables Understanding the different types of variables is important when establishing the type of theory to be used in a study. Independent Variables that are inferred to cause outcomes or precede an outcome IVs are also referred to as a Factor or Predictor (variable). The program, treatment variable or Intervention is also the IV Dependent The outcome that depends on the independent variable or proceeds the IV The DV is also known the Outcome (variable) or criterion variable Intervening or mediating Variables that stand between the independent and dependent variables Moderating New variables that measure the joint impact of two variables Confounding Variables that could also affect the dependent variables along with the identified IV, but cannot or will not be measured. Confounding variables can be moderating or intervening variables

Intervening or Mediating Variables
Quantitative Intervening or Mediating Variables Variables in Quantitative Methods Independent Variables that are inferred to cause outcomes Factor, Program, Treatment (variable), Predictor (variable), Intervention Dependent The outcome that depends on the independent variable Outcome (variable), criterion Intervening or mediating Variables that stand between the independent and dependent variables Moderating New variables that measure the joint impact of two variables Confounding Variables that could also affect the dependent variables, but cannot or will not be measured. Confounding variables can be moderating or intervening variables Understanding the different types of variables is important when establishing the type of theory to be used in a study. Independent Variables that are inferred to cause outcomes or precede an outcome IVs are also referred to as a Factor or Predictor (variable). The program, treatment variable or Intervention is also the IV Dependent The outcome that depends on the independent variable or proceeds the IV The DV is also known the Outcome (variable) or criterion variable Intervening or mediating Variables that stand between the independent and dependent variables Moderating New variables that measure the joint impact of two variables Confounding Variables that could also affect the dependent variables along with the identified IV, but cannot or will not be measured. Confounding variables can be moderating or intervening variables

Moderating Variables Variables in Quantitative Methods Quantitative
Independent Variables that are inferred to cause outcomes Factor, Program, Treatment (variable), Predictor (variable), Intervention Dependent The outcome that depends on the independent variable Outcome (variable), criterion Intervening or mediating Variables that stand between the independent and dependent variables Moderating New variables that measure the joint impact of two variables Confounding Variables that could also affect the dependent variables, but cannot or will not be measured. Confounding variables can be moderating or intervening variables Understanding the different types of variables is important when establishing the type of theory to be used in a study. Independent Variables that are inferred to cause outcomes or precede an outcome IVs are also referred to as a Factor or Predictor (variable). The program, treatment variable or Intervention is also the IV Dependent The outcome that depends on the independent variable or proceeds the IV The DV is also known the Outcome (variable) or criterion variable Intervening or mediating Variables that stand between the independent and dependent variables Moderating New variables that measure the joint impact of two variables Confounding Variables that could also affect the dependent variables along with the identified IV, but cannot or will not be measured. Confounding variables can be moderating or intervening variables

Confounding Variables
Quantitative Confounding Variables Variables in Quantitative Methods Independent Variables that are inferred to cause outcomes Factor, Program, Treatment (variable), Predictor (variable), Intervention Dependent The outcome that depends on the independent variable Outcome (variable), criterion Intervening or mediating Variables that stand between the independent and dependent variables Moderating New variables that measure the joint impact of two variables Confounding Variables that could also affect the dependent variables, but cannot or will not be measured. Confounding variables can be moderating or intervening variables Understanding the different types of variables is important when establishing the type of theory to be used in a study. Independent Variables that are inferred to cause outcomes or precede an outcome IVs are also referred to as a Factor or Predictor (variable). The program, treatment variable or Intervention is also the IV Dependent The outcome that depends on the independent variable or proceeds the IV The DV is also known the Outcome (variable) or criterion variable Intervening or mediating Variables that stand between the independent and dependent variables Moderating New variables that measure the joint impact of two variables Confounding Variables that could also affect the dependent variables along with the identified IV, but cannot or will not be measured. Confounding variables can be moderating or intervening variables

Theory Operating as a Bridge
Quantitative Theory Operating as a Bridge Theory Independent Variable Dependent Variable The theoretical framework also referred to as the theory base or theoretical rationale is utilized to scientifically provide an exhaustive explanation (the how and why) two variables are related and further explains the cause and effect relation between the IV and the DV.

Social Learning Theory
Quantitative Social Learning Theory Theory Operating as a Bridge Social Learning Theory (Bandura, 1977) Confidence Test Performance Here is a basic example of how a the Social Learning Theory is used to explain the relationship between the construct of confidence and its affect on test performance. Remember that construct is another term for variable. In this example Confidence is the IV and test performance is the DV.

Examples of Theories Attribution Theory by Heider
Quantitative Examples of Theories Attribution Theory by Heider The Health Belief Model by Hochbaum et al. Learning Theories Behavioral perspective Cognitive perspective Social Interaction Instructional approach Attribution theory is concerned with how individuals interpret events and how this relates to their thinking and behavior. Attribution theory assumes that people try to determine why people do what they do. The Health Belief Model (HBM) is a psychological model that attempts to explain and predict health behaviors. This is done by focusing on the attitudes and beliefs of individuals. Learning theories try to explain how individual consume and learn information. And like leadership theory, it can be broken down into many different categories. For example, one can study a learning theory using a behavioral perspective or social interaction approach.

Deductive Technique for the Quantitative Method
The Theory is Introduced A Literature Review is developed Research Questions are developed based on the Theory (and supported literature) The Variables in the Research Questions are defined and operationalized Research using the quantitative method can be experimental, quasi experimental or non experimental. Depending on the type of research the ultimate goal is to explain, predict, or establish causal relations between variables. The process is always deductive. [Briefly read each step in the model presented] Data is collected, analyzed, and interpreted A discussion is presented to support or refute the Theory

The Theory is Introduced
Quantitative Deductive Technique for the Quantitative Method Theory Is Introduced The Theory is Introduced \ The theory is introduced.

Lit Review Is Developed
Quantitative Lit Review Is Developed Deductive Technique for the Quantitative Method The Theory is Introduced A Literature Review is developed A literature review is developed.

Deductive Technique for the Quantitative Method
RQs Are Developed Deductive Technique for the Quantitative Method The Theory is Introduced A Literature Review is developed Research Questions are developed based on the Theory (and supported literature) \ Research Questions are developed based on the Theory (and supported literature)

Deductive Technique for the Quantitative Method Variables Are Defined
The Theory is Introduced A Literature Review is developed Research Questions are developed based on the Theory (and supported literature) The Variables in the Research Questions are defined and operationalized The Variables in the Research Questions are defined and operationalized

Data Collected, Analyzed, Interpreted
Quantitative Deductive Technique for the Quantitative Method Data Collected, Analyzed, Interpreted The Theory is Introduced A Literature Review is developed Research Questions are developed based on the Theory (and supported literature) The Variables in the Research Questions are defined and operationalized Data is collected, analyzed, and interpreted Data is collected, analyzed, and interpreted \

Discussion Supports or Refutes Theory
Quantitative Deductive Technique for the Quantitative Method Discussion Supports or Refutes Theory The Theory is Introduced A Literature Review is developed Research Questions are developed based on the Theory (and supported literature) The Variables in the Research Questions are defined and operationalized A discussion is presented to support or refute the Theory Data is collected, analyzed, and interpreted A discussion is presented to support or refute the Theory

Theory Placement: Introduction
Quantitative Theory Placement Theory Placement: Introduction Placement Advantages Disadvantages In the introduction Common approach; familiar to readers; conveys a deductive approach Difficult for a reader to isolate theory base from other components of the research process In the literature review Including theories in a literature review is a logical extension or part of the literature Difficult for a reader to see the theory in isolation from the larger literature After hypotheses or research questions The theory discussion explains how and why variables are related May leave out an extended discussion about the origin and use of the theory In a separate section Clearly separates the theory from other components of the research process, enables a reader to better identify and to understand the theory base The theory discussion is isolated and may not easily connect with other components of the research process The theory can be placed in a variety of places in a quantitative study including the introduction, the literature review, after the research questions or hypothesis, or in a separate section. Placing the theory in the introduction is a common approach that has the advantage of being familiar to readers and conveys a deductive approach. However, the disadvantage of this placement is that it may be difficult for the reader to isolate the theory base from other components of the research process.

Placed in Lit Review Theory Placement Quantitative Placement
Advantages Disadvantages In the introduction Common approach; familiar to readers; conveys a deductive approach Difficult for a reader to isolate theory base from other components of the research process In the literature review Including theories in a literature review is a logical extension or part of the literature Difficult for a reader to see the theory in isolation from the larger literature After hypotheses or research questions The theory discussion explains how and why variables are related May leave out an extended discussion about the origin and use of the theory In a separate section Clearly separates the theory from other components of the research process, enables a reader to better identify and to understand the theory base The theory discussion is isolated and may not easily connect with other components of the research process Placing theories in a literature review is a logical extension or part of the literature, but this approach may make it difficult for the reader to see the theory in isolation from the larger literature.

Placed After RQs Theory Placement Quantitative Placement Advantages
Disadvantages In the introduction Common approach; familiar to readers; conveys a deductive approach Difficult for a reader to isolate theory base from other components of the research process In the literature review Including theories in a literature review is a logical extension or part of the literature Difficult for a reader to see the theory in isolation from the larger literature After hypotheses or research questions The theory discussion explains how and why variables are related May leave out an extended discussion about the origin and use of the theory In a separate section Clearly separates the theory from other components of the research process, enables a reader to better identify and to understand the theory base The theory discussion is isolated and may not easily connect with other components of the research process When the theory discussion is included after the research questions or hypothesis, theory discussion explains how and why the variables are related, but this may leave out an extended discussion about the origin and use of the theory.

Placed in Separate Section
Quantitative Placed in Separate Section Theory Placement Placement Advantages Disadvantages In the introduction Common approach; familiar to readers; conveys a deductive approach Difficult for a reader to isolate theory base from other components of the research process In the literature review Including theories in a literature review is a logical extension or part of the literature Difficult for a reader to see the theory in isolation from the larger literature After hypotheses or research questions The theory discussion explains how and why variables are related May leave out an extended discussion about the origin and use of the theory In a separate section Clearly separates the theory from other components of the research process, enables a reader to better identify and to understand the theory base The theory discussion is isolated and may not easily connect with other components of the research process Placing the discussion of the theory in a separate section is useful for clearly separating the theory from other components of the research process and enables the reader to better identify and to understand the theory base. However, the theory discussion is isolated and my not easily connect with other components of the research process.

Theory and the Qualitative Method
Now let us examine how theory can be used in qualitative research methods.

Theory Use in Qualitative Methods
The definition of Theory remains the same but is typically applied differently in Qualitative Methods: The Theory provides a broad explanation of behavior and attitudes Establish a theoretical lens (i.e., orienting lens) Feminist perspective Racialized discourse Critical theory Starts with an endpoint - a theory that is generated (inductive) No theory is employed (the inquiry is developed explicitly from participants as seen in phenomenological approaches) Qualitative researchers can apply a theory in their studies several ways. First, the definition of a theory remains the same. But the idea is to provide more of a broad explanation of behaviors and attitudes as opposed to specifically identifying relationships between variables (as seen in quantitative methods). The three main approaches are to use of theory in qualitative methods are (a) establish a theoretical lens. The theoretical lens provides an orientation map for the researcher and guides the rest of the study, (b) the theory can be generated inductively as seen in grounded theory approaches, or (c) no theory is employed – the researcher develops meaning and inquiry strictly based on participant data and is most commonly used in phenomenological approaches.

Paradigms, Theoretical Lens, Foundational Theory
QUALITATIVE Theory Use in Qualitative Methods Paradigms, Theoretical Lens, Foundational Theory Sometimes referred to as: “Paradigms” of Social Science Theoretical Lens Foundational Theory (same as theoretical lens) Conflict theory Marxist theory Structural functionalism Symbolic interaction Feminist perspective Racialized discourse Critical theory Queer theory Disability inquiry The two prevailing approaches to theoretical applications in the qualitative method is use of a theoretical lens also known as “paradigms” of social science or the foundational theory. Foundational theories are selected at a very early point in the research project. They guide the way the researcher views the study and how the research questions are developed. It also guides the selection of the particular research design. It is important to note that some qualitative researchers refer to foundational theories as theoretical frameworks. You can see here a list of the most commonly known “big” theories or foundational theories including conflict theory, Marxist theory, structural functionalism, symbolic interaction, feminisit perspective, racialized discourse, critical theory, queer theory, and disability inquiry.

Theory Use in Qualitative Methods (cont.)
Applications Theoretical Lens or Foundational Theory Grounded Theory Does Not include initial a priori presentation of one of the “big” foundational theories Critical-reflexive Theory Theoretical Lens or Foundational Theory begins with a theory that helps to establish the orienting lens and guides the development of the research questions. Grounded theory does not start with the a priori presentation of one of the big foundational theories such as feminist or critical theory. Criticisms of foundational theoretical approaches and grounded theory have led to reflexive sociology otherwise known as critical-reflexive theory. This is a mental process or practice by which researchers examine the origin and sources of the categories and theories which they bring to the research. These influences on research choices include the researcher’s own demographic and personal background and experiences.

Types of Theories Theories can be broken down into types: QUALITATIVE
Grand Theory Mid-range Theory Micro-level Theory So let’s take a minute to talk about types of theories used in qualitative research. Grand theories (or macro theories) are non-specific and constructed from relatively abstract concepts. These theories are more difficult to operationalize. Mid-range theory consider specific phenomena and involve a small number of concepts related to a restricted range of contexts. Micro-level theories have narrowest range and are focused in specific phenomena and contexts. Keep in mind that when reviewing and searching for theories authors do not typically indicate a theory as a grand, mid-range or micro-level theory. All these theories would still be considered your foundational theory or theoretical lens.

Examples of Types of Theories
QUALITATIVE Examples of Types of Theories Types of Theories Theories can be broken down into types: Grand Theory Mid-range Theory Micro-level Theory Type Psychology Social/Educational Grand Theory Psychodynamic theory Social Construction Mid-range Theory Five stage theory Social Interaction Micro-level Theory Individual formation theory Phenomenology Psycdynamic theory is an example of a grand theory in psychology and social construction is a grand theory used in the social sciences and education. Five stage theory is a mid-range theory in psychology while social interaction is used in the social sciences and education. And finally, individual formation theory is an example of a micro-level theory in psychology while phenomenology is a micro-level theory found in the social sciences and education.

More Examples of Theories Used for Qualitative Methods
Professionalisation Theory by Elliot Freidson Labelling Theory by Scheff Negotiated Order Theory by Strauss There are other ther examples of theories used for qualitative methods as well.Professionalisation Theory was developed in response to previous research that had only viewed the positive traits related to professional groups. Labelling Theory refers to the fact that research has a tendency to negatively label groups whose behaviour deviates from the norm. And Negotiated Order Theory was developed to address and advance the thinking about the way social order is maintained in organizations, just to name a few.

The Inductive Logic of Research in Qualitative Methods
Researcher poses generalizations, or theories, and compares to past experiences and literature Researcher looks for broad patterns, generalizations, or theories from themes or categories Researcher analyzes data to form themes or categories The process of research in qualitative methods is always non experimental. The researcher does not espouse to establish causal relations between variables. And based on the application of the theory the process can be inductive or deductive or a combination of induction and deduction. Researcher asks open-ended questions of participants or records fieldnotes Researcher gathers information

Researcher Gathers Information
QUALITATIVE The Inductive Logic of Research in Qualitative Methods Researcher Gathers Information The researcher gathers information . Researcher gathers information

Open-Ended Questions and Fieldnotes
QUALITATIVE The Inductive Logic of Research in Qualitative Methods Open-Ended Questions and Fieldnotes The researcher asks open-ended questions of participants or records fieldnotes Researcher asks open-ended questions of participants or records fieldnotes Researcher gathers information

Analyze Data to Form Themes
QUALITATIVE The Inductive Logic of Research in Qualitative Methods Analyze Data to Form Themes Researcher analyzes data to form themes or categories The researcher analyzes data to form themes or categories. Researcher asks open-ended questions of participants or records fieldnotes Researcher gathers information

Look for Broad Patterns
QUALITATIVE The Inductive Logic of Research in Qualitative Methods Look for Broad Patterns Researcher looks for broad patterns, generalizations, or theories from themes or categories Researcher asks open-ended questions of participants or records fieldnotes The researcher looks for broad patterns, generalizations, or theories from the identified themes or categories Researcher asks open-ended questions of participants or records fieldnotes Researcher gathers information

Pose Generalizations or Theories
QUALITATIVE The Inductive Logic of Research in Qualitative Methods Pose Generalizations or Theories Researcher poses generalizations, or theories, and compares to past experiences and literature Researcher looks for broad patterns, generalizations, or theories from themes or categories Researcher analyzes data to form themes or categories And, finally, based on the data collected, the researcher can pose generalizations or theories and compares these to past experiences and the literature. Researcher asks open-ended questions of participants or records fieldnotes Researcher gathers information

Use of Theory in Mixed Methods
Mixed methods studies may: Include theory deductively (theory testing) Quantitatively oriented Include theory inductively (an emerging pattern) Qualitatively oriented Use a theoretical lens and framework to guide the study Emphasis is equal between QUAL and QUAN The use of a theory in mixed methods can take different approaches. The application of a theory in mixed methods studies can vary substantially based on the type of mixed method design. If the mixed methods design is more qualitatively oriented then only a theoretical lens may be used to guide the application of the study. If the mixed methods design is more quantitatively oriented then a theoretical framework can be applied. If the emphasis between qualitative and quantitative methods are equal, then a theoretical lens and framework may be applied.

Examples Qualitative example with a theoretical lens: Haldenby, A. M., Berman, H., & Forchuk, C. (2007). Homelessness and health in adolescents. Qualitative Health Research, 17(9), 1232– Discussion of theory on p Qualitative example that generates a theory: Harley, A. E., Buckworth, J., Katz, M. L., Willis, S. K., Odoms-Young, & Heaney, C. A. (2007). Developing long-term physical activity participation: A grounded theory study with African American women. Health Education & Behavior. Generated theory on pp. 5–14. Quantitative example: Frankenberger, K. D. (2004). Adolescent egocentrism, risk perceptions, and sensation seeking among smoking and nonsmoking youth. Journal of Adolescent Research, 19(5), 576– Literature review and theory on pp. 577–580. Mixed methods example: Parmelee, J. H., Perkins, S. C., & Sayre, J. J. (2007). “What about people our age?” Applying qualitative and quantitative methods to uncover how political ads alienate college students. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(2), 183– Literature review and theoretical perspective on pp. 184–187.

Selected References Anfara, V., & Mertz, N. T. (2006). Theoretical frameworks in qualitative research. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed method approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Reeves, S., et al. (2008). Why use theories in qualitative research? BMJ(337:a949), Scott, G., & Garner, R. (2013). Doing qualitative research: Designs, methods, and techniques. Boston, MA: Pearson.

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