1. Reviewing the Literature
Elke Johanna de Buhr, PhD
Tulane University

2. Textbook Chapters
Creswell, Chapters 2 and 5
Salkind, Chapter 3A

3. Your Research Proposal
I. Introduction
A. Problem/purpose statement
B. Research question(s)
C. Hypothesis
D. Definitions of terms
II. Review of the relevant literature
A. Importance of the question being asked
B. Current status of the topic
C. Relationship between the literature and the problem statement 
III. Method
A. Target population
B. Research design and sampling
C. Data collection plans
D. Proposed analysis of the data
IV. Implications and limitations 

4. Research Proposal: Part I

5. Research Proposal: Part I
I. Introduction
A. Problem/purpose statement
B. Research question(s)
C. Hypothesis (if any)
D. Definitions of terms

6. The Importance of Introductions
The Introduction
The first passage in a journal article, dissertation, or scholarly research study that
Sets the stage for the project
Creates reader interest in the topic
Establishes the issues or concerns that leads to the study
Conveys information about the problem
Places the study within the larger context
Reaches out to a specific audience
A Research Problem
The problem or issue that leads to the need for a study from
Personal experience
Debate in the literature
Gaps that needs to be addressed
Policy debates
Problem in society at large

7. An Abstract for a Study
Most importance single paragraph in a study because:
It gives a brief summary of the contents of a study
It allows the reader to quickly survey the essential elements of the study
It starts with the issue or problem
It indicates the purpose of the study
It states the data that will be collected to address the purpose
It indicates the themes or statistical results likely
It indicates the practical implications of the study

8. Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Introductions
Introductions take a similar pattern for all approaches, but have some differences
Qualitative Introductions
Problem calls for exploration
May be shaped by a theoretical lens
May be written from a personal, first-person, subjective point of view
Quantitative Introductions
Problem calls for factors and variables
May advance a theory to be tested and substantial literature
May be written from an impersonal, objective point of view
Mixed Methods Introductions
May use a quantitative or qualitative approach or a combination
If one approach is emphasized or begins the study, then the introduction may follow that approach

9. A Model for an Introduction
The deficiencies model of an introduction
Popular approach in research
Write one paragraph per element (2 pages total):
State the research problem
Review studies that have addressed the problem
Indicate deficiencies in the studies
Advance the significance of the study for particular audiences
State the purpose statement
See example of introduction provided on page

10. The Research Problem
Begin the introduction with a narrative hook to engage the reader
Easily understood by many readers
Builds readers’ interest through reference to study participants or posing questions
Clearly identify the issue(s) or problem(s) that lead to a need for the study
Indicate why the problem is important by citing numerous references

11. The Research Problem (cont.)
Opening sentence should stimulate interest while presenting the issue
Do not use quotations to avoid confusion
Avoid idiomatic expressions
Consider numeric information for impact
Clearly identify the research problem
Indicate why the problem is important using the existing literature
Frames the problem in a manner consistent with the research approach in the study
Indicate if there is a single problem or multiple problems involved in the proposed study

12. Studies Addressing the Problem
The use of literature in the introduction differs from the full literature review (Chapter 2)
The literature review in the introduction serves to:
Justify the importance of the problem
Set the research problem within ongoing dialogue in the literature
Create distinctions between past studies and the proposed study
Summarize large groups of studies (broad categories) in the introduction instead of individual ones

13. Studies Addressing the Problem (cont.)
Tips to consider when reviewing the literature for the introduction:
Deemphasize single studies: Summarize groups of studies not individual ones
Use in-text referencing to remove the emphasis on any one study
Review studies that use quantitative, qualitative and mixed-methods approaches
Use recent studies (last 10 years) and older studies that are of value
Summarize the more general literature and emphasize the need for the current study

14. Evaluating Deficiencies in Past Literature
After addressing the problem and reviewing the literature about it, it is important to examine the deficiencies in past literature.
Deficiencies in past literature may exist because:
The topic has not been explored with a particular group, sample, or population
The literature needs to be replicated with new people or sites
The voice of underrepresented groups has not been heard in published literature

16. Deficiencies in Past Literature (cont.)
When identifying deficiencies in past literature:
Cite several deficiencies
Identify specifically the deficiencies of the other studies
Indicate areas overlooked by past studies
Also tell how proposed study will:
Remedy or address the deficiencies
Provide a unique contribution to the literature

17. Significance of a Study for Audiences
Describe the significance of the study for select audiences to convey the importance of the study
Consider including:
3-4 reasons the study adds to the scholarly literature
3-4 reasons the study helps to improve practice
3-4 reasons the study will improve policy
End with a statement of the purpose of the study

19. Research Proposal: Part II

20. Research Proposal: Part II
II. Review of the relevant literature (the more complete, the better)
A. Importance of the question being asked
B. Current status of the topic
C. Relationship between the literature and the problem statement 

21. Literature Review Quantitative vs. qualitative study
Primary vs. secondary data collection
Purpose:
Research proposal
Descriptive report
Academic paper
Etc.

22. Chapter Two: Review of the Literature

23. Chapter Outline Review of the Literature The Research Topic
The Literature Review
The Use of the Literature
Design Techniques
Steps in Conducting a Literature Review Searching Computerized Databases
A Priority for Selecting Literature Material
A Literature Map of the Research
Abstracting Studies
Example 2.1. Literature Review Abstract in a Quantitative Study
Example 2.2. Literature Review Abstract in a Study Advancing a Typology
Style Manuals
The Definition of Terms
Example 2.3. Terms Defined in an Independent Variables Section
Example 2.4. Terms Defined in a Mixed Methods Dissertation
A Quantitative or Mixed Methods Literature Review

24. The Literature Review Shares the results of other studies
Relates the study to the larger dialogue in the literature
Provides a framework for establishing the importance of the study
Provides a benchmark for comparing the results to other findings

25. The Use of Literature
The use and length of the literature varies based on the forum: research proposal, dissertation or journal article
Despite this, the literature may:
Provide a summary of major studies on the research problem
Demonstrate the writers knowledge of the topic/problem/issue
Integrate what others have done and said about the topic/problem/issue
May criticize previous scholarly works on the topic/problem/issue
May allow for connections between related topics
May elucidate the central issues in the field

26. Using Literature in a Qualitative Study

27. Using Literature in a Quantitative Study
In quantitative studies the literature is used deductively as it provides a framework for the research questions and hypothesis
Provide direction to the research questions and hypotheses
Introduce a problem
Introduce and describe the theory that will be used
Examine the usefulness of the theory
Compare results with existing literature or predictions

28. Using Literature in a Mixed Methods Study
In mixed methods studies Researchers use the literature:
In either a quantitative or qualitative approach
In a manner consistent with either quantitative or qualitative approach
Relative to the intended audience
Irrespective of the type of study, choose one of the following types of literature reviews:
Integrative
Critical
Building bridges among topics
Identification of central issues

29. Steps in Conducting a Literature Review
Identify key words
Search library catalogs
Identify about 50 research reports in articles or books
Photocopy those that are central to your topic
Design a literature map
Draft summaries of the relevant articles
Write a literature review, organizing it by important concepts

30. Searching Computerized Databases
Computerized databases are readily available through libraries and the internet
These databases provide access to numerous journal articles, conference papers and dissertations on a wealth of topics
Some of these online data bases include:
ERIC - ProQuest - EBSCO
Sociological Abstracts - PsycINFO - PubMed
Science direct - Google scholar
Social Science Citation Index (SSCI)

31. Searching Computerized Databases (cont.)
Use both free databases and those subscribed for by academic libraries
Search several databases, even those outside your field
Do not use only search terms that are identical to your topic and study interest, slight variations in the search terms may yield more outcomes
Locate articles that are close to your topic and use their descriptors to enhance your search
Use databases that provide access to full articles

32. Selecting Literature Material
Start with broad syntheses (such as encyclopedias) if you are new to the topic
Turn to journal articles in national journals
Next consider books
Then examine conference papers
Scan for dissertations
Make sure to also review the available “grey literature” (wealth of reports on topics related to international development on the Internet but quality varies)

33. Literature Map of Research
A literature map is a visual summary of existing research on a topic
The structure of the literature map may be:
A hierarchical pattern
A flowchart layout
A series of circles

34. An Example of Literature Map

35. Abstracting Studies Draft abstracts that summarize selected articles
For research studies:
Mention the problem
State the central purpose
State information about the population and sample
Review key results
Point out methodological flaws (if a methodological review)
For nonempirical studies (essays, opinions, etc.)
State the central theme
State the major conclusions
Mention flaws in reasoning or logic (if a methodological review)

36. Style Manuals
Style manuals provide guidelines for producing scholarly work and include directions on the following:
Citing references
Creating headings
Presenting tables and figures
In-text citation/references
End-of-text references
Footnotes (not used in all style manuals)
Reminder: Consistently use the chosen style manual

37. The Definition of Terms
Identify and define terms that readers need to understand a proposal
Define terms introduced in all sections of the research plan
The title of the study
The problem statement
The purpose statement
The research questions, hypotheses, or objectives
The literature review
The theory base of the study
The methods section

38. The Definition of Terms (cont.)
Qualitative studies are inductive and evolutionary in nature hence the definition of terms may appear later in the written report, perhaps in the data analysis
Quantitative studies are deductive with a fixed set of objectives, hence all relevant terms are comprehensively defined earlier in the study
In mixed methods studies the definition of relevant terms follows the use of (earlier or later in the study) and emphasis placed on quantitative and qualitative approaches

39. The Definition of Terms (cont.)
Define terms when they first appear in the manuscript
Use specific operational definitions
Do not define terms using everyday language, be guided by the literature
Define terms so that they accomplish different goals
One may use a definition of terms section in the manuscript

40. The Definition of Terms (cont.)

41. A Quantitative or Mixed Methods Literature Review
A suggested model:
Introduce the review with a statement about the organization of the sections
Review literature about the independent variables
Review literature about the dependent variables
Review literature that relates the independent variables to the dependent variables
Provide a summary
Highlight important studies
Capture major themes
Suggest why more research is needed
Advance how the proposed study will fill this need

42. Making a Case for Your Research
Carefully summarize the best available literature
Identify deficiencies in the past literature
Describe how the planned study will remedy or address these deficiencies (significance of the study)