1. 6
consciousness and cognition

2. why study consciousness, the nature of thought, and communication
why study consciousness, the nature of thought, and communication? Consciousness, as humans experience it, is the key difference between humans and the lower animals. Waking thought, sleeping, and other forms of conscious awareness make up the better part of the human experience. Many theorists also see language as the major “dividing line” between humans and animals, but that line seems to be blurring—or is it? In a very real sense, to understand consciousness is to understand what it means to be who we are. We need to understand more about the thought processes that occur when we are asleep or awake. Why do we need to sleep at all? What is the difference between dreaming thought and waking thought? How do we organize our thoughts and use them to solve problems? How do we communicate those thoughts to others? How close do animals really come to true language?

3. Learning Objectives LO 6.1 Consciousness and levels of consciousness
LO 6.2 Why sleep and how sleep works
LO 6.3 Stages of sleep and dreaming
LO 6.4 Sleep disorders and normal sleep
LO 6.5 Mental images and concepts in thinking
LO 6.6 Solving problems and make decisions
LO 6.7 Failure of problem solving and creative thinking
LO 6.8 Language and different elements and structure of language
LO 6.9 Language and thinking and are animals able to learn language
LO 6.10 Ways to improve thinking

4. LO 6.1 Consciousness and levels of consciousness
Awareness of activity around one at any given moment
The awareness is used to organize behavior
Waking consciousness
Thoughts, feelings, and sensations are clear, organized
Feel alert

5. LO 6.1 Consciousness and levels of consciousness
Altered state of consciousness
Shift from waking consciousness in the quality or pattern of mental activity
Can be increased or decreased alertness
Divided attention
Example: cell phone and driving
Can put the driver at risk

6. The driver of this car has several competing demands on his attention: working his cell phone, listening to the passenger read from a letter, and driving his car. If he manages to get himself and his passenger safely to their destination, it's possible that he won't even remember the trip—he may be driving in an altered state of consciousness.

7. LO 6.2 Why sleep and how sleep works
Biology of Sleep
LO 6.2 Why sleep and how sleep works
Circadian rhythm
Cycle of body rhythms that occur over a 24-hour period
“circa” – about
“diem” – day
Sleep-Wake cycle is controlled by the hypothalamus

8. LO 6.2 Why sleep and how sleep works
Biology of Sleep
LO 6.2 Why sleep and how sleep works
Circadian rhythm
Suprachiasmatic nucleus
Hypothalamic structure that is light sensitive
Signals to pineal gland to release melatonin

9. Figure Sleep Patterns of Infants and Adults Infants need far more sleep than older children and adults. Both REM sleep and NREM sleep decrease dramatically in the first 10 years of life, with the greatest decrease in REM sleep. Nearly 50 percent of an infant's sleep is REM, compared to only about 20 percent for a normal, healthy adult (Roffwarg et al, 1966).

10. LO 6.2 Why sleep and how sleep works
Stages of Sleep
LO 6.2 Why sleep and how sleep works
REM sleep
Relatively active type of sleep
Most dreaming takes place in this stage
Voluntary muscle movement is inhibited
Non-REM sleep
Deeper, more restful kind of sleep
Muscle movement not inhibited
Four stages

11. Brain Wave Patterns and Sleep
LO 6.2 Why sleep and how sleep works
Electroencephalagram (EEG)
Measures electrical activity in brain
Different patterns during different stages
Beta waves
Awake, mentally active, small and fast EEG pattern
Alpha waves
Become drowsy, waves slightly larger and slower

12. Brain Wave Patterns and Sleep
LO 6.2 Why sleep and how sleep works
Electroencephalagram (EEG)
Different patterns during different stages
Theta Waves
Slower and larger
Delta Waves
Deepest sleep, largest and slowest waves

13. Non-REM Stages of Sleep
LO 6.3 Stages of sleep and dreaming
Non-REM Stage 1: Light Sleep
Theta wave activity increases, alpha wave activity fades
Hypnogogic images
Hypnic jerk

14. Non-REM Stages of Sleep
LO 6.3 Stages of sleep and dreaming
Non-REM Stage 2: Sleep Spindles
Body temperature continues to drop
Heart rate slows, breathing becomes more shallow and irregular
EEG will show the first signs of sleep spindles

15. Non-REM Stages of Sleep
LO 6.3 Stages of sleep and dreaming
Non-REM Stage 3 and Stage 4: Delta Waves
Deepest stage of sleep
Body is at its lowest level of functioning

16. Figure A Typical Night's Sleep The graph shows the typical progression through the night of the different stages of sleep. The four non-REM stages are indicated on the y-axis; REM stages are represented by the green curves on the graph. The REM periods occur about every 90 minutes throughout the night (Dement, 1974).

17. LO 6.3 Stages of sleep and dreaming
REM Sleep and Dreaming
LO 6.3 Stages of sleep and dreaming
During REM sleep:
Body temperature increases, eyes move rapidly under eyelids, heart beats faster
Brain waves similar to waking state
90% of dreams occur in REM sleep
REM paralysis
Voluntary muscles are paralyzed

18. LO 6.3 Stages of sleep and dreaming
REM Sleep and Dreaming
LO 6.3 Stages of sleep and dreaming
REM behavior disorder
Brain mechanisms that inhibit the voluntary muscles fail
Occurs mainly in men over 60

19. LO 6.3 Stages of sleep and dreaming
Why Two Types of Sleep?
LO 6.3 Stages of sleep and dreaming
NREM sleep increases in response to physical demands on body
REM sleep increases in response to emotional stress

20. LO 6.3 Stages of sleep and dreaming
Why Two Types of Sleep?
LO 6.3 Stages of sleep and dreaming
REM rebound
Increase in REM sleep noted after REM deprivation
Infants spend 50% of sleep in REM
Not dreaming but forming new neural connections

21. LO 6.4 Sleep disorders and normal sleep
Sleepwalking (somnambulism)
Affects 20% of population
Occurs during deep sleep
More common in children

22. LO 6.4 Sleep disorders and normal sleep
Night terror
State of panic experienced while asleep
Relatively rare disorder
Person experiences extreme fear and screams or runs around without waking
Occurs during stage four
Nightmares
Bad dreams occurring during REM sleep

23. Nightmares are common in children and often involve being chased by a monster or similar frightening creature or being lost in a strange place like this young boy.

24. “Murder While Sleepwalking”
LO 6.4 Sleep disorders and normal sleep
Refers to REM behavior disorder rather than ordinary sleepwalking
Use of this defense is sometimes successful
Past history of sleep disturbance should be present

25. This woman has insomnia
This woman has insomnia. In insomnia, a person has trouble getting to sleep, staying asleep, or getting enough sleep. How will this woman feel when she gets up in the morning?

26. LO 6.4 Sleep disorders and normal sleep
Problems During Sleep
LO 6.4 Sleep disorders and normal sleep
Insomnia
Inability to fall asleep, stay asleep, or have good quality of sleep
Sleep apnea
Person stops breathing for nearly half a minute or more
Continuous positive airway pressure device assists with breathing

27. LO 6.4 Sleep disorders and normal sleep
Problems During Sleep
LO 6.4 Sleep disorders and normal sleep
Narcolepsy
Falling into REM sleep during the day without warning
Experience Cataplexy
Sudden loss of muscle tone

28. Table Sleep Disorders

29. LO 6.4 Sleep disorders and normal sleep
Suggestions for Sleep
LO 6.4 Sleep disorders and normal sleep
Go to bed only when sleepy
Only use the bed for sleep
Bed should be a cue for sleeping
Don’t try too hard to get to sleep
Increases tension, makes it harder to sleep

30. LO 6.4 Sleep disorders and normal sleep
Suggestions for Sleep
LO 6.4 Sleep disorders and normal sleep
Keep to a regular bedtime schedule
Don’t take drugs that slow the nervous system
Can cause REM rebound thus depriving body of deep sleep

31. Thinking and Mental Images
LO 6.4 Sleep disorders and normal sleep
Thinking (cognition)
Mental activity that involves
Organizing and attempting to understand information
Communicating information to others

32. Thinking and Mental Images
LO 6.4 Sleep disorders and normal sleep
Mental images
Representations that stand for objects or events
Have a picture-like quality
Engage mental images in mind much like would interact with physical object imagined
In the brain, creating a mental image is reverse of seeing an actual image

33. Figure Kosslyn's Fictional Island In Kosslyn's 1978 study, participants were asked to push a button when they had imagined themselves moving from one place on the island to another. As the graph below the picture shows, participants took longer times to complete the task when the locations on the image were farther apart (Kosslyn et al., 1978).

34. LO 6.5 Mental images and concepts in thinking
Represent category of objects, events, or activities
Ability to think in terms of concepts allows communication with others
Allow identification of new objects and events that fit concept

35. LO 6.5 Mental images and concepts in thinking
Can represent different levels of objects or events
Superordinate concept
Most general form of a type of concept, such as “animal” or “fruit”
Basic level type
Concept around which other similar concepts are organized, such as “dog,” “cat,” or “pear”

36. LO 6.5 Mental images and concepts in thinking
Subordinate concept
The most specific category of a concept
Such as "Granny Smith apple”
Formal concepts
Defined by specific rules or features
Science and mathematics use many formal concepts

37. LO 6.5 Mental images and concepts in thinking
Natural concepts
Concepts formed as a result of experiences
Not defined by rigid rules

38. LO 6.5 Mental images and concepts in thinking
Prototype
A concept that closely matches the original concept
Personal knowledge about a type of object affect the nature of a given prototype for the category
Greater differences and variations in prototypes exist between cultures that are dissimilar

39. LO 6.5 Mental images and concepts in thinking
Concepts are one way people deal with the variety of information bombarding the senses
Organize by schemes and scripts
Schemes
Mental generalizations about objects, places, events, and people
Scripts
Schema with a familiar sequence of activities

40. Table 6.2 From prototypes to Atypical Examples (Most Typical to Least Typical)

41. LO 6.6 Solving problems and making decisions
Problem-Solving
LO 6.6 Solving problems and making decisions
Problem-solving
Cognition that occurs when a goal must be reached
Thinking and behaving in certain ways
Trial and error (mechanical solution)
One possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found

42. LO 6.6 Solving problems and making decisions
Problem-Solving
LO 6.6 Solving problems and making decisions
Algorithms
Specific, step-by-step procedures for solving a problem type

43. These children try one possible sequence of moves after another until finding just the right combination. This is an example of trial-and-error learning.

44. LO 6.6 Solving problems and making decisions
Problem-Solving
LO 6.6 Solving problems and making decisions
Heuristic
“Rule of thumb”
Simple rule intended to apply to many situations
Representative heuristic
Categorize by shared characteristics
Can lead to stereotypes

45. LO 6.6 Solving problems and making decisions
Problem-Solving
LO 6.6 Solving problems and making decisions
Heuristic
Means–end analysis
Difference between starting situation and goal assessed
Steps taken to reduce difference
Insight
Sudden perception of a solution to a problem

46. Problem-Solving Barriers
LO 6.7 Failure of problem solving and creative thinking
Functional fixedness
Block to problem solving
Comes from thinking about objects in terms of only their typical functions
Mental set
Persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked in the past
Hesitate in trying new solution

47. Problem-Solving Barriers
LO 6.7 Failure of problem solving and creative thinking
Confirmation bias
Search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs
Ignore evidence that does not fit those beliefs

48. LO 6.7 Failure of problem solving and creative thinking
Creativity
LO 6.7 Failure of problem solving and creative thinking
Process of solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in new ways
Convergent thinking
Problem is seen as having only one answer
All lines of thinking lead to single answer
Uses previous knowledge and logic

49. LO 6.7 Failure of problem solving and creative thinking
Creativity
LO 6.7 Failure of problem solving and creative thinking
Divergent thinking
Starts from one point
Develop different ideas or possibilities based on that point

50. Figure The String Problem How do you tie the two strings together if you cannot reach them both at the same time?

51. Figure Solution to the String Problem The solution to the string problem is to use the pliers as a pendulum to swing the second string closer to you.

52. The Dot Problem Can you draw four straight lines so that they pass through all nine dots without lifting your pencil from the page and without touching any dot more than once?

53. Figure Solution to the Dot Problem When people try to solve this problem, a mental set causes them to think of the dots as representing a box, and they try to draw the line while staying in the box. The only way to connect all nine dots without lifting the pencil from the paper is to draw the lines so they extend out of the box of dots—literally “thinking outside the box.”

54. Table 6.3 Stimulating Divergent Thinking

55. LO 6.8 Language and different elements and structure of language
System for combining symbols (such as words)
Unlimited number of meaningful statements
Statements made for the purpose of communicating with others
Represents internal mental activity

56. Elements and Structure of Language
LO 6.8 Language and different elements and structure of language
Grammar
System of rules governing the structure and use of a language
Syntax
Rules for combining words and phrases to form grammatically correct sentences

57. Elements and Structure of Language
LO 6.8 Language and different elements and structure of language
Morphemes
Smallest unit of meaning within language
Semantics
Rules for determining the meaning of words and sentences

58. Elements and Structure of Language
LO 6.8 Language and different elements and structure of language
Phonemes
Basic units of sound in language
Pragmatics
Aspects of language involving the practical ways of communicating with others
The social “niceties” of language

59. Pragmatics involves the practical aspects of communicating
Pragmatics involves the practical aspects of communicating. This young mother is talking and then pausing for the infant's response. In this way, the infant is learning about taking turns, an important aspect of language development. What kinds of games do adults play with infants that also aid the development of language?

60. Relationship Between Language and Thought
LO 6.9 Language and thinking and are animals able to learn language
Piaget
Concepts preceded and aid the development of language
Concepts become the “pegs” on which words are “hung”

61. Relationship Between Language and Thought
LO 6.9 Language and thinking and are animals able to learn language
Vygotsky
Believed almost the opposite
Language helps develop concepts language
Could also help the child learn to control behavior
Including social behavior

62. Language and Cognition
LO 6.9 Language and thinking and are animals able to learn language
Linguistic relativity hypothesis
Thought processes and concepts are controlled by language
Cognitive universalism
Concepts are universal and influence the development of language

63. LO 6.9 Language and thinking and are animals able to learn language
Animal Language
LO 6.9 Language and thinking and are animals able to learn language
Animals communicate with sound and physical movement
Attempts made to teach sign language
Many of these studies are not “good science”
Linguists debate if animals are truly learning language if they are not also learning how to use syntax

64. Dr. Irene Pepperberg, a research scientist at MIT, is shown with her star pupil, Alex the gray parrot, who was the main subject of her research into animal language until his death in September 2007.

65. Mental and Physical Exercise for Better Cognitive Health
LO 6.10 Ways to improve thinking
Aerobic fitness has been associated with improved cognitive function across the life span
Better executive control and memory processes in preadolescent children
Better educational outcomes later in life
Improved affect and visuospatial memory in young adults

66. Mental and Physical Exercise for Better Cognitive Health
LO 6.10 Ways to improve thinking
Aerobic fitness has been associated with improved cognitive function across the life span
Increased hippocampal volume in older adults
Promotes functional connectivity among key brain areas of frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes
Result of increased oxygen and blood flow to brain