1. Introduction to Algorithms (2 nd edition) by Cormen, Leiserson, Rivest & Stein Chapter 3: Growth of Functions (slides enhanced by N. Adlai A. DePano)

2. Overview  Order of growth of functions provides a simple characterization of efficiency  Allows for comparison of relative performance between alternative algorithms  Concerned with asymptotic efficiency of algorithms  Best asymptotic efficiency usually is best choice except for smaller inputs  Several standard methods to simplify asymptotic analysis of algorithms

3. Asymptotic Notation  Applies to functions whose domains are the set of natural numbers: N = {0,1,2,…}  If time resource T(n) is being analyzed, the function’s range is usually the set of non- negative real numbers: T(n)  R +  If space resource S(n) is being analyzed, the function’s range is usually also the set of natural numbers: S(n)  N

4. Asymptotic Notation  Depending on the textbook, asymptotic categories may be expressed in terms of -- a.set membership (our textbook): functions belong to a family of functions that exhibit some property; or b.function property (other textbooks): functions exhibit the property  Caveat: we will formally use (a) and informally use (b)

5. The Θ-Notation f c1 ⋅ gc1 ⋅ g n0n0 c2 ⋅ gc2 ⋅ g Θ (g(n)) = { f(n) : ∃ c 1, c 2 > 0, n 0 > 0 s.t. ∀ n ≥ n 0 : c 1 · g(n) ≤ f(n) ≤ c 2 ⋅ g(n) }

6. The O-Notation f c ⋅ gc ⋅ g n0n0 O(g(n)) = { f(n) : ∃ c > 0, n 0 > 0 s.t. ∀ n ≥ n 0 : f(n) ≤ c ⋅ g(n) }

7. The Ω-Notation Ω(g(n)) = { f(n) : ∃ c > 0, n 0 > 0 s.t. ∀ n ≥ n 0 : f(n) ≥ c ⋅ g(n) } f c ⋅ gc ⋅ g n0n0

8. The o-Notation o(g(n)) = { f(n) : ∀ c > 0 ∃ n 0 > 0 s.t. ∀ n ≥ n 0 : f(n) ≤ c ⋅ g(n) } f c1 ⋅ gc1 ⋅ g n1n1 c2 ⋅ gc2 ⋅ g c3 ⋅ gc3 ⋅ g n2n2 n3n3

9. The ω-Notation f c1 ⋅ gc1 ⋅ g n1n1 c2 ⋅ gc2 ⋅ g c3 ⋅ gc3 ⋅ g n2n2 n3n3 ω (g(n)) = { f(n) : ∀ c > 0 ∃ n 0 > 0 s.t. ∀ n ≥ n 0 : f(n) ≥ c ⋅ g(n) }

10.  f(n) = O(g(n)) and g(n) = O(h(n)) ⇒ f(n) = O(h(n))  f(n) = Ω(g(n)) and g(n) = Ω(h(n)) ⇒ f(n) = Ω(h(n))  f(n) = Θ(g(n)) and g(n) = Θ(h(n)) ⇒ f(n) = Θ(h(n))  f(n) = O(f(n)) f(n) = Ω(f(n)) f(n) = Θ(f(n)) Comparison of Functions Reflexivity Transitivity

11.  f(n) = Θ(g(n)) ⇐⇒ g(n) = Θ(f(n))  f(n) = O(g(n)) ⇐⇒ g(n) = Ω(f(n))  f(n) = o(g(n)) ⇐⇒ g(n) = ω(f(n))  f(n) = O(g(n)) and f(n) = Ω(g(n)) ⇒ f(n) = Θ(g(n)) Comparison of Functions Transpose Symmetry Symmetry Theorem 3.1

12. Asymptotic Analysis and Limits

13.  f 1 (n) = O(g 1 (n)) and f 2 (n) = O(g 2 (n)) ⇒ f 1 (n) + f 2 (n) = O(g 1 (n) + g 2 (n))  f(n) = O(g(n)) ⇒ f(n) + g(n) = O(g(n)) Comparison of Functions

14. Standard Notation and Common Functions  Monotonicity A function f(n) is monotonically increasing if m  n implies f(m)  f(n). A function f(n) is monotonically decreasing if m  n implies f(m)  f(n). A function f(n) is strictly increasing if m < n implies f(m) < f(n). A function f(n) is strictly decreasing if m f(n).

15. Standard Notation and Common Functions  Floors and ceilings For any real number x, the greatest integer less than or equal to x is denoted by  x . For any real number x, the least integer greater than or equal to x is denoted by  x . For all real numbers x, x  1 <  x   x   x  < x+1. Both functions are monotonically increasing.

16. Standard Notation and Common Functions  Exponentials For all n and a  1, the function a n is the exponential function with base a and is monotonically increasing.  Logarithms Textbook adopts the following convention lg n = log 2 n (binary logarithm), ln n = log e n (natural logarithm), lg k n = (lg n) k (exponentiation), lg lg n = lg(lg n) (composition), lg n + k = (lg n)+k (precedence of lg). ai

17.  Important relationships For all real constants a and b such that a>1, n b = o(a n ) that is, any exponential function with a base strictly greater than unity grows faster than any polynomial function. For all real constants a and b such that a>0, lg b n = o(n a ) that is, any positive polynomial function grows faster than any polylogarithmic function. Standard Notation and Common Functions

18.  Factorials For all n the function n! or “n factorial” is given by n! = n  (n  1)  (n  2)  (n  3)  …  2  1 It can be established that n! = o(n n ) n! =  (2 n ) lg(n!) =  ( n lgn )

19.  Functional iteration The notation f (i) (n) represents the function f(n) iteratively applied i times to an initial value of n, or, recursively f (i) (n) = n if n=0 f (i) (n) = f(f (i  1) (n)) if n>0 Example: If f(n) = 2n then f (2) (n) = f(2n) = 2(2n) = 2 2 n then f (3) (n) = f(f (2) (n)) = 2(2 2 n) = 2 3 n then f (i) (n) = 2 i n Standard Notation and Common Functions

20.  Iterated logarithmic function The notation lg* n which reads “log star of n ” is defined as lg* n = min {i  0 : lg (i) n  1 Example: lg* 2 = 1 lg* 4 = 2 lg* 16 = 3 lg* 65536 = 4 lg* 2 65536 = 5 Standard Notation and Common Functions

21.  We consider algorithm A better than algorithm B if T A (n) = o(T B (n))  Why is it acceptable to ignore the behavior of algorithms for small inputs?  Why is it acceptable to ignore the constants?  What do we gain by using asymptotic notation? Asymptotic Running Time of Algorithms

22.  Asymptotic analysis studies how the values of functions compare as their arguments grow without bounds.  Ignores constants and the behavior of the function for small arguments.  Acceptable because all algorithms are fast for small inputs and growth of running time is more important than constant factors. Things to Remember

23.  Ignoring the usually unimportant details, we obtain a representation that succinctly describes the growth of a function as its argument grows and thus allows us to make comparisons between algorithms in terms of their efficiency. Things to Remember