1. AIR NAVIGATION

2. Air navigation introduction
Pilotage and dead reckoning
Maps and charts
Mission planning
Dead reckoning with basic instruments
Lines of position, bearing and fix
Map reading
Time
Use of flight computer

3. Importance things before getting start
LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE
TIME ZONES
MEASUREMENT OF DIRECTION
EFFECT OF WIND
THE WIND TRIANGLE OR VECTOR ANALYSIS
VARIATION
ISOGONIC AND AGONIC LINE
DEVIATION
TRUE AND MAGNETIC VALUES

4. LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE
The degrees of latitude are measured north or south of the Equator. (1 minute of latitude = one nautical mile)
The degrees of longitude are measured east or west of the Prime meridian.

5. TIME ZONES The meridians are also useful for designating time zones.
A day is defined as the time required for the Earth to make one complete rotation of 360º.
Since the day is divided into 24 hours, the Earth revolves at the rate of 15º an hour.
The standard practice is to establish a time zone for each
15º of longitude. This makes a difference of exactly 1 hour
between each zone.

6. TIME ZONES
Noon is the time when the Sun is directly above a meridian; to the west of that meridian is morning, to the east is afternoon.

7. TIME
The time of the day
Zulu time
Local time
An elapsed interval

8. Local Time Local Time = UTC Local Conversion Factor-W
Local Time = UTC Local Conversion Factor
To find Local Conversion Factor = a + b + c
a. Degree of Longitude ÷15 = Hours (leftovers not count )
b. Leftovers × = Minutes
c. Minutes of Longitude × 4 ÷ 60 = Seconds

9. Giving :GMT 0200 hrs, 30 June, local longitude 68 º 21’ E.
Find : Local Time
a. 68 ÷ = 4 leftovers 8 = 4 Hours
b. 8 × = Minutes
c. 21 × 4 ÷ 60 = Minutes or 1 Minute 24 Seconds
Local Conversion Factor = a + b + c = 4 Hours 33 Min. 24 Sec. +E -W
Local Time = UTC Local Conversion Factor
= 02:00 +04:33:24
= 06:33:24

10. Local time 2000 hrs, 15 February, local long 135º 00’ W. What is UTC
a.      1100 hrs, 15 February.
b.      1100 hrs, 16 February.
c.      0500 hrs, 15 February.
d hrs, 16 February. +E -W
Local Time = UTC Local Conversion Factor
UTC = Local Time Local Conversion Factor
= hrs
= 2900
= (next day)
- E +W

11. Giving :GMT 1900 hrs, 25 Oct, local longitude 101º 42’ E.
Practice :
Giving :GMT 1900 hrs, 25 Oct, local longitude 101º 42’ E.
Find : Local Time
a. 101 ÷ = 6 leftovers 11 = 6 Hours
b. 11 × = Minutes
c. 42 × 4 ÷ 60 = Minutes or 2 Minute 48 Seconds
Local Conversion Factor = a + b + c = 6 Hours 46 Min. 48 Sec. +E -W
Local Time = UTC Local Conversion Factor
= 19: :46:48
= 25:46:48 = 01:46:48 / 26 Oct

12. MEASUREMENT OF DIRECTION
By using the meridians, direction from one point to another can be measured in degrees, in a clockwise direction from true north.
To indicate a course to be followed in flight, draw a line on the chart from the point of departure to the destination and measure the angle which this line forms with a meridian.

13. MEASUREMENT OF DIRECTION
Because meridians converge toward the poles, course measurement should be taken at a meridian near the midpoint of the course rather than at the point of departure.
The course measured on the chart is known as the true course (TC).

14. MEASUREMENT OF DIRECTION
As shown, the direction from A to B would be a true course of 065º, whereas the return trip (called the reciprocal) would be a true course of 245º

15. EFFECT OF WIND
The airplane will fly faster with a tailwind or slower with a headwind, or to drift right or left with a crosswind.

16. COURSE is the intended path of an airplane over the ground; or the direction of a line drawn on a chart. (Desired Course)
HEADING is the direction in which the nose of the airplane points during flight.
TRACK is the actual path made over the ground in flight. (If proper correction has been made for the wind, track and course will be identical.)
DRIFT ANGLE is the angle between heading and track.

17. WIND CORRECTION ANGLE is correction applied to the course to establish a heading so that track will coincide with course.
True course correct for the wind = True heading
TC – WCA = TH

18. EFFECT OF WIND TO A/S
Assuming no correction is made for wind effect, if the airplane is heading eastward at 120 knots, and the air mass moving southward at 20 knots
In this situation, the A/S remains 120 knots, but the G/S which is computed by the time required to fly between two points of a known distance apart is not 120 knots.
The G/S can be determined by constructing a wind triangle.

19. THE WIND TRIANGLE OR VECTOR ANALYSIS
The wind triangle is a graphic explanation of the effect of wind upon flight. Groundspeed, heading, and time for any flight can be determined by using the wind triangle.

20. THE WIND TRIANGLE OR VECTOR ANALYSIS
Example : Flight from E to P at A/S of 120 kias, TC = 090º wind from 045º Find : G/S, TH and WCA

21. THE WIND TRIANGLE OR VECTOR ANALYSIS
Finding True heading (TH) by direct measurement

22. THE WIND TRIANGLE OR VECTOR ANALYSIS
Finding True heading (TH) by the wind correction angle (WCA)
If the wind blows from the right of true course, the angle will be added; if from the left, it will be subtracted. ( -L +R WCA )

23. Variation
Because courses are measured in reference to true north, but these courses are maintained by reference to the
compass which points to magnetic north.
So the true direction must be converted into magnetic
direction for the purpose of flight.

24. Variation
The angular difference between true north and magnetic north from any given position on the earth’s surface is Variation.
You can find the actual value of the variation angle on the chart. It is marked by a dashed magenta line.

25. Isogonic and Agonic Line
The amount and the direction of variation, which change slightly from time to time, are shown on most aeronautical charts as broken magenta lines, called isogonic lines, which connect points of equal magnetic variation.
The line connecting points at which there is no variation between true north and magnetic north is the agonic line.

26. Variation
To convert true course or heading to magnetic course or heading, note the variation shown by the nearest isogonic line. If variation is west, add; if east, subtract.
One method for remembering whether to add or subtract variation is the phrase “east is least (subtract) and west is best (add).”
Example : True course (TC) 295º, Variation 11ºW
Magnetic course (MC) = 295º + 11º = 306º

27. Effect of Variation on the compass

28. Deviation
Compass deviation is unique to each individual airplane and is the result of compass interference caused by metals and electrons in the vicinity of the wet compass.
Magnetic heading correct for Deviation = Compass Heading
A compass deviation card is located very near the wet compass so that pilots may correct their magnetic heading for that error.

29. Deviation The deviation card will typically read something like this:
Using this example, to fly a magnetic heading of 301 degrees, we would need to fly a compass heading of 304 degrees.

30. True and Magnetic Values
Course and Heading
Course is always the line draw on the chart.
Heading is always a direction measured relative to the longitudinal axis of the air plane.
True course correct for the wind = True heading
Magnetic course correct for the wind = Magnetic heading

31. C D M V T The method used by many pilots to determine compass heading:
After the true course (TC) is measured, and wind correction applied resulting in a true heading (TH), the sequence C D M V T is used.

32. C D M V T C = Compass Heading 291º D = Deviation +1
M = Magnetic Heading/Course 290º
V = Varition 5E
T = True Heading/Course 295º

33. Practice :
A pilot is planning to fly to destination which required a course on a chart of 165º and variation value close to the course line is 3ºW, with a given deviation card, what is the compass heading he has to fly (assuming no wind).
C = Compass Heading 167º
D = Deviation -1
M = Magnetic Heading/Course 168º
V = Varition 3W
T = True Heading/Course 165º

34. Navigation Introduction
Word NAVIGATION came from two Latin words:
NAVIS: ship
AGERE: to direct or move
Navigation means finding your way.
Navigation is the art and science of getting from point "A" to point "B" in the least possible time without losing your way.

35. Navigation Introduction
Air Navigation means knowing where you are (in the air), where you want to go, and having a good idea of how much time and fuel it will take to get there.

36. The type of navigation used by pilots depends on many factors.
Where the pilot is going.
How long the flight will take.
When the flight is to take off.
The type of aircraft being flown.
The on-board navigation equipment.
The ratings and currency of the pilot.
The expected weather.

37. Pilotage and dead reckoning
The two most fundamental methods of finding your way in an airplane are Pilotage and Dead Reckoning.
These two methods normally are used together, each acting as a cross-check of the other.

38. Pilotage
Is the identification of present position and direction of flight by seeing features on the ground.
Pilotage is mainly used by pilots of small, low speed aircraft who compare symbols on aeronautical charts with surface features on the ground in order to navigate.

39. Pilotage disadvantages
Poor visibility caused by inclement weather can prevent a pilot from seeing the needed landmarks and cause the pilot to become disoriented and navigate off course.
A lack of landmarks when flying over the more remote areas can also cause a pilot to get lost.

40. Using pilotage for navigation can be as easy as following a highway or a railroad.

41. Three basic tasks of pilotage navigation are :
Create a course
Fly on course
Make position check

42. before take-off, pilot will making pre-flight planning by drawing a line on the aeronautical map to indicate the desired course.
Then notes various landmarks , such as highways , railroad tracks, rivers , bridges.
As the pilot flies over each of landmark , he will checks it off on the chart or map.
If the plane does not pass directly over the landmark, he will know that he has to correct the course.

43. Pilotage Things To Consider
Line of Position (LOP)
LOP is the simple concept that the airplane is locate somewhere along a specific line.
LOP doesn’t establish the exact position, but rather a line of possible positions.
The intersection of two different LOP is a FIX

44. Pilotage Things To Consider
Line of Position A B
I am someplace between point A and B.
Fix 1
Fix 2
Fix 3
I just crossed fix 3.

45. Pilotage Things To Consider
Course Considerations B A

46. Pilotage Things To Consider
Checkpoints B A

47. Checkpoints Note
The checkpoints selected should be prominent features common to the area of the flight.
Choose checkpoints that can be readily identified by other features such as roads, rivers, railroad tracks, lakes, and power lines.
If possible, select features that will make useful boundaries or brackets on each side of the course, such as highways, rivers, railroads, and mountains.

48. Pilotage Tip
Never place complete reliance on any single checkpoint. Choose ample checkpoints. If one is missed, look for the next one while maintaining the heading.
If confused, hold the heading. If a turn is made away from the heading, it will be easy to become lost.
Aeronautical charts display the best information available
at the time of printing, but a pilot should be cautious for new structures or changes that have occurred since the
chart was printed.

49. Dead reckoning (DR)
DR is the navigation procedure to plot and fly a course based solely on mathematical calculations .
"You're Dead if you don't Reckon properly."

50. Dead reckoning
DR is the process of estimating your position by advancing a known position using course, speed, time and distance to be traveled.
In other words figuring out where you will be at a certain time if you hold the speed, time and course you plan to travel.

51. Dead reckoning Procedures
Open air navigation chart and select departure airport and destination airport.
Draw a straight line from the the center of the runway symbol at the departure airport to the destination airport. Avoid Prohibit and Restrict Area and note others special used airspace.
Find the nearest north-south running tick marked line. This is a line of longitude.
Measure the angle between the north-south line of longitude and the direction of flight. This angle is called the TRUE COURSE (TC).

52. Dead reckoning Procedure
5. Measure distance by using distance bar on the map.
Or using minutes and second scale on latitude (1 minute of latitude = one nautical mile)
6. Mark distance along course line.
Mark any check point with circle.
Mark alternate airfield with triangle.
Note safety height along the routes.
Draw Information boxes and fill in necessary data.

53. Calculated Fuel Remaining
Map Preparation
TURNING POINT
INFORMATION BLOCK 40 30 20
350 10
Magnetic Heading
0:45
Estimate Time Interval
3500
Safety Height (RED) 22
Calculated Fuel Remaining 23
Actual Fuel Remaining

54. Magnetic Heading
Estimate Time Interval
Safety Height
Calculated Fuel Remaining
Actual Fuel Remaining 10 5

55. Estimate Time Interval Safety Height 10 Calculated Fuel Remaining
ATA
ETA
Magnetic Heading 15
Check Point
ATA
Estimate Time Interval
ETA
Safety Height 10
Calculated Fuel Remaining
Magnetic Heading
Actual Fuel Remaining 5
Estimate Time Interval
ATA
Safety Height
Calculated Fuel Remaining
ETA
Actual Fuel Remaining 10 5

56. Dead reckoning Procedure
6. Collect other necessary data such as wind & temperature forecast
7. Begin transferring data to the navigation log (Nav. Log).

57. NAVIGATION LOG
VTBT D
Ko Lan D
VTBU
a. Under "Check Points" list the departure airport first followed by the next checkpoints until destination airport on the last line.
b. Under "Course" write the symbol D which means we are flying directly.

58. NAVIGATION LOG c. Place cruise altitude in the altitude block.
VTBT
090 15 D
1500
100 27
Ko Lan
090 15 D
1500
100 27
VTBU
c. Place cruise altitude in the altitude block.
d. Place forecast wind in the wind dir./vel. block and place forecast temp.
e. Write the TAS in the next block.

59. NAVIGATION LOG
VTBT
090 15
206
198 D
1500
100 27 -8
Ko Lan
090 15
137
131 D
1500
100 27 -6
VTBU
In the top block under the symbol "TC" write in the true course which measured on the chart.
Calculate TH or WCA using wind triangle (vector analysis) method.

60. NAVIGATION LOG
VTBT
090 15
206
198
196 X X X X D
1500
100
197 27 -8 -2 1
Ko Lan
090 15
137
131
129 D
1500
100
130 27 -6 -2 1
VTBU
h. Get Compass Heading (CH) by correcting True Heading (TH) with Var & Dev
i. Insert Distance (Dist) and calculate Est. Ground Speed (GS), Estimate Time Enroute (ETE) and Estimate Time Arrival (ETA)